Kingdom of Pontus
Encyclopedia
The Kingdom of Pontus or Pontic Empire was a state of Persian
origin on the southern coast of the Black Sea
. It was founded by Mithridates I
in 291 BC and lasted until its conquest by the Roman Republic
in 63 BC. The kingdom grew to its largest extent under Mithridates VI the Great, who conquered Colchis
, Cappadocia
, Bithynia
, the Greek colonies of the Tauric Chersonesos and for a brief time the Roman province of Asia. After a long struggle with Rome in the Mithridatic Wars
, Pontus was defeated, part of it was incorporated into the Roman Republic
as the province Bithynia et Pontus
and the eastern half survived as a client kingdom.
As the greater part of the kingdom lay within the immense region of Cappadocia
, which in early ages extended from the borders of Cilicia
to the Euxine (Black Sea), the kingdom as a whole was at first called 'Cappadocia by Pontus' or 'Cappadocia by the Euxine', but afterwards simply "Pontus," the name Cappadocia being henceforth restricted to the southern half of the region previously included under that title.
and Sinope, the latter which became the Pontic capital after its capture. The coast was rich in Timber, fishing and the olive trade. Pontus was also rich in Iron and silver, which were mined near the coast south of Pharnacia, steel from the Chalybian mountains became quite famous in Greece. There are also copper, lead, zinc and arsenic. The Pontic interior also had its fertile river valleys such as the river Lycus
and Iris. The major city of the interior was Amasia
, the early Pontic capital, where the Pontic kings had their Palace and royal tombs. After Amasia
and a few other cities, the interior was mainly dominated by small villages. The kingdom of Pontus was divided into districts named Eparchies.
The division between coast and interior was also cultural. The coast was mainly Greek and focused on sea trade. The interior was occupied by the Anatolian Cappadocians and Paphlagonians ruled by an Iranian aristocracy which went back to the Persian empire. The interior also had powerful Temples with large estates. The gods of the Kingdom were mostly syncretic, with features of local gods, Persian and Greek Deities. Major gods included the Persian Ahuramazda who was termed Zeus
Stratios, the Moon god Men
Pharnacou and Ma (interpreted as Cybele).
Sun gods were particularly popular with the royal house being identified with the Persian god Ahuramazda of the Achaemenid dynasty, both Apollo
and Mithras were worshipped by the Kings. Indeed, the name used by the majority of the Pontic kings was Mithridates which means "given by Mithras". Pontic culture saw a synthesis between Greek and Iranian elements, though the most Hellenized parts of the Kingdom were surely the coastal regions, already Greek in themselves. Epigraphic evidence also shows extensive Hellenistic influence in the interior. By the time of Mithridates VI Eupator, Greek was the official language of the Kingdom though Anatolian languages
continued to be spoken in the interior. The Pontic Kings though they claimed descent from the Persian royal house generally acted as Hellenistic kings and portrayed themselves as such in their coins, mimicking Alexander's royal stater.
(Katpatuka). While the Persian dynasty which was to found this kingdom had during the fourth century B.C. ruled the Greek city of Cius
(or Kios) in Mysia
, with its first known member being Mithridates of Cius. His son Ariobarzanes II
became satrap of Phrygia
. He became a strong ally of Athens
and revolted against Artaxerxes
. However Ariobarzanes was betrayed by his son Mithridates II of Cius
. Mithridates II remained as ruler after Alexander's conquests and was a vassal to Antigonus I Monophthalmus
who briefly ruled Asia Minor after the Partition of Triparadisus
. Mithridates was killed by Antigonus in 302 B.C. under suspicion that he was working with his enemy Cassander
. Antigonus planned to kill Mithridates' son, also called Mithridates (later named Ktistes, 'founder') but Demetrius I
warned him and he escaped to the east with six horsemen.
Mithridates first went to the city of Cimiata in Paphlagonia
and later to Amasia in Cappadocia
. He fought against Seleucus I and in 281 (or 280) BC declared himself ruler of a state in northern Cappadocia and eastern Paphlagonia and ruled from 302 to 266. He further expanded his kingdom to the river Sangrius in the west and his son Ariobarzanes captured Amastris
in 279, its first important Black sea port. Mithridates also allied with the newly arrived Galatians and defeated a force sent against him by Ptolemy I. Ptolemy had been expanding his territory in Asia minor since the beginning of the First Syrian war
against Antiochus in the mid 270s and was allied with Mithridates' enemy, Heraclea Pontica
.
short reign, when he died his son Mithridates II (c. 250—189) became king and was attacked by the Galatians. Mithridates II received aid from Heraclea Pontica
who was also at war with the Galatians at this time. Mithridates went on to support Antiochus Hierax against his brother Seleucus II Callinicus. Seleucus was defeated in Anatolia by Hierax, Mithridates and the Galatians. Mithridates also attacked Sinope
in 220 but failed to take the city. He married Seleucus II's sister and gave his daughter to Antiochus III, seeking recognition for his new kingdom and to create strong ties with the Seleucid empire. The sources are silent on Pontus for the following years after the death of Mithridates II, when his son Mithridates III ruled (c. 220-198/88).
Pharnaces I of Pontus
(189-159 BC) was much more successful in his expansion against the Greek coastal cities. He joined in a war with Prusias of Bithynia
against Eumenes of Pergamon
in 188 BC, but the two made peace in 183 after Bithynia suffered a series of reversals. He took Sinope
in 182 B.C. and though the Rhodians complained to Rome over this, nothing was done. Pharnaces also took the coastal cities of Cotyora, Pharnacia and Trapezus
in the east, effectively controlling most of the northern Anatolian coastline. Despite Roman attempts to keep the peace, Pharnaces fought against Eumenes of Pergamon and Ariarathes of Cappadocia, while he was initially successful, it seems he was overmatched by 179 when he was forced to sign a treaty. He had to give up all lands in Galatia
, and Paphlagonia
he had obtained and the city of Tium, but he kept Sinope. Seeking to extend his influence to the north, Pharnaces allied with the cities in the Chersonesus and with other black sea cities such as Odessus on the Romanian coast. Pharnaces' brother, Mithridates IV
Philopator Philadelphus adopted a peaceful, pro-Roman policy. He sent aid to the Roman ally Attalus II of Pergamon against Prusias II of Bithynia in 155.
His successor, Mithridates V of Pontus
Euergetes remained a friend of Rome and sent ships and a small force of auxiliares to aid Rome in the third Punic war in 149 BC. He also sent troops for the war against Eumenes III
(Aristonicus) who had usurped the Pergamene throne after the death of Attalus III
. After Rome received the Kingdom of Pergamon
from Attalus III, they turned part of it into the province of Asia, while giving the rest to loyal allied kings. For his loyalty he was awarded the region of Phrygia
Major. The kingdom of Cappadocia
received Lycaonia
and Mithridates received Phrygia. Because of this it seems reasonable to assume that Pontus had some sort of control over Galatia
, since Phrygia does not border Pontus directly. It is possible that he inherited part of Paphlagonia
after the death of its King, Pylaemenes. Mithridates V married his daughter Laodice to the king of Cappadocia, Ariarathes VI of Cappadocia
and he also went on to invade Cappadocia, though the details of this war are unknown. Hellenization continued under Mithridates V, he was the first king to widely recruit Greek mercenaries in the Agean, he was honored at Delos and he depicted himself as Apollo in his coins. Mithridates was assassinated at Sinope in 121/0, the details of which are unclear.
Because both sons of Mithridates V, Mithridates VI and Mithridates Chrestus
, were still children, Pontus now came under the regency of his wife Laodice. She favored Chrestus and Mithridates VI escaped the Pontic court. Legend would later say this is the time he traveled through Asia Minor, building his resistance to poisons and learning all of the languages of his subjects. He returned in 113 in BC to depose his mother and she was thrown into prison, he eventually also had his brother killed.
from king Antipater (Precise Date unknown, 115-106) and by conquering the Kingdom of Colchis
. Colchis was an important region in black sea trade, rich with gold, wax, hemp and honey. The cities of the Tauric Chersonesus now appealed for his aid against the Scythians in the north. Mithridates sent 6,000 men under general Diophantus, after various campaigns in the north of the Crimea he controlled all of the Chersonesus. Mithridates also developed trade links with cities on the western black sea coast.
At the time Rome was fighting the Jugurthine
and Cimbric wars. Mithridates and Nicomedes of Bithynia both invaded Paphlagonia and divided it amongst themselves. A Roman embassy was sent but it accomplished nothing. Mithridates also took a part of Galatia which had been part of his father's kingdom in the past. Mithridates also intervened in Cappadocia, where his sister Laodice was queen. In 116 the king of Cappadocia Ariarathes VI was murdered by the Cappadocian noble Gordius at the behest of Mithridates and Laodice ruled as regent over the sons of Ariarathes until 102 BC. After Nicomedes III of Bithynia
married Laodice, he tried to intervene in the region by sending troops and Mithridates swiftly invaded, placing his nephew Ariarathes VII of Cappadocia
on the throne of Cappadocia. However, war soon broke out between the two and Mithridates invaded with a large Pontic army, but Ariarathes VII was murdered in 101 BC before any battle was fought. Mithridates then installed his eight year old son, Ariarathes IX of Cappadocia
as king, and Gordius as regent. In 97 Cappadocia rebelled but it was swiftly put down by Mithridates. Afterwards Mithridates and Nicomedes III both sent embassies to Rome. The Roman Senate decreed that Mithridates had to withdraw from Cappadocia and Nicomedes from Paphlagonia. Mithridates obliged and the Romans installed Ariobarzanes in Cappadocia. In 91/0 BC while Rome was busy in the Social War
in Italy, Mithridates encouraged his new ally and son in law, King Tigranes the Great
of Armenia to invade Cappadocia. He did so, and Ariobarzanes fled to Rome. Mithridates then deposed Nicomedes IV from Bithynia placing Socrates Chrestus
on the throne.
and Bithynia
were restored to their respective monarchs, but now they faced large debts to Rome due to their bribes for the Roman senators and Nicomedes IV was eventually convinced by Aquillius to attack Pontus in order to repay them. He plundered as far as Amastris
, and returned with much loot. Mithridates invaded Cappadocia once again, and Rome declared war.
In the summer of 89 BC, Mithridates invaded Bithynia and defeated Nicomedes and Aquillius in battle. He moved swiftly into Roman Asia and resistance crumbled; by 88 he had obtained the surrender of most of the newly created province. He was welcomed in many cities who chafed under Roman tax farming
. In 88 Mithridates also ordered the massacre of at least 80,000 Romans and Italians in what became known as the 'Asiatic Vespers
'. Many Greek cities in Asia minor happily carried out the orders; this ensured that they could no longer return to an alliance with Rome. In the autumn of 88 Mithridates also placed Rhodes
under siege, but he failed to take it.
In Athens
, anti-Roman elements were emboldened by the news and soon formed an alliance with Mithridates. A joint Pontic-Athenian naval expedition took Delos
in 88 BC, and granted the city to Athens. Many Greek city-states now joined Mithridates, including Sparta
, the Achaean League
and most of the Boeotian League except Thespiae
. Finally in 87 BC, Lucius Cornelius Sulla
departed from Italy with five legions. He marched through Boeotia
which easily surrendered, and began laying siege to Athens and the Piraeus
(the Athenian port city, no longer connected by the Long Walls
). Athens fell in March 86 BC and the city was sacked. After stiff resistance, Archelaus the Pontic general in the Piraeus left by sea and Sulla utterly destroyed the port city. Meanwhile Mithridates had sent his son Arcathias with a large army via Thrace into Greece.
Sulla now headed north, seeking the fertile plains of Boeotia to supply his army. At the Battle of Chaeronea
, Sulla inflicted horrible casualties on Archelaus, who nevertheless retreated and continued to raid Greece with the Pontic fleet. Archelaus regrouped and attacked a second time at the battle of Orchomenus
in 85 BC, but was once again defeated and suffered heavy losses. Because of the heavy losses and the subsequent unrest they stirred in Asia Minor as well as the Roman army now campaigning in Bithynia, Mithridates was eventually forced to accept a peace deal. Mithridates and Sulla met in 85 BC at Dardanus. Sulla decreed that Mithridates had to surrender Roman Asia and to give back Bithynia and Cappadocia to their former kings. He also had to pay 2,000 talents and provide ships. Mithridates would retain the rest of his holdings, and become an ally of Rome.
and Lycaonia
. Mithridates now faced Roman commanders on two fronts when in 74 the consul Lucullus
took over Cilicia
. The Cilician pirates had not been completely defeated however, and Mithridates signed an alliance with them. He was also allied with the government of Quintus Sertorius
in Spain and with his help reorganized some of his troops in the Roman legionary pattern with short stabbing swords.
The Third Mithridatic war broke out when Nicomedes IV of Bithynia died without heirs in 75 and left his kingdom to Rome. In 74 BC Rome mobilized its armies in Asia Minor, probably provoked by some move made by Mithridates, but our sources are not clear on this. In 73 Mithridates invaded Bithynia and his fleet defeated the Romans off Chalcedon
and laid siege to Cyzicus
. Lucullus
marched from Phrygia
with his five legions and forced Mithridates to retreat back to Pontus. In 72 BC Lucullus invaded Pontus through Galatia
and marched north following the river Halys to the north coast, he invested Amisus which withstood siege until 70 BC. In 71 he marched through the Iris and Lycus river valleys and established his base in Cabeira. Mithridates sent his cavalry to cut his supply line to Cappadocia
in the south, but they suffered heavy casualties. Mithridates, still unwilling to fight a decisive engagement now began a retreat to Lesser Armenia
, where he expected aid from his ally Tigranes the great. Because of his now weakened cavalry, the retreat turned into an all out rout and most of the Pontic army was destroyed or captured. These events led Machares
the son of Mithridates and ruler of the Crimean Bosporus to seek an alliance with Rome. Mithridates fled to Armenia.
In the summer of 69 Lucullus
invaded Armenian territory, marching with 12,000 men through Cappadocia into Sophene
, his target was Tigranocerta the new capital of Tigranes's empire and Tigranes retreated to gather his forces. Lucullus laid siege to the city, and Tigranes returned with his army including large numbers of heavily armored cavalrymen termed Cataphracts, vastly outnumbering Lucullus' force. Despite this, Lucullus led his men in a charge against the Armenian horse and won a great victory at the Battle of Tigranocerta
. Tigranes fled north while Lucullus destroyed his new capital city and dismantled his holdings in the south by granting independence to Sophene and returning Syria back to the Seleucid king Antiochus XIII Asiaticus
. In 68 BC, Lucullus invaded northern Armenia, ravaging the country and captured Nisibis
, but Tigranes avoided battle. Meanwhile Mithridates invaded Pontus, and in 67 he defeated a large Roman force near Zela
. Lucullus now faced with tired and discontent troops, withdrew to Pontus, then to Galatia and he was replaced by two new consuls arriving from Italy with fresh legions, Marcius Rex and Acilius Glabrio. Mithridates now recovered Pontus while Tigranes invaded Cappadocia.
In response to increasing Piratical activity in the eastern Mediterranean, the senate granted Pompey
extensive Proconsul
ar Imperium
throughout the Mediterranean in 67 BC. Pompey eliminated the pirates, and in 66 he was assigned command in Asia Minor to deal with Pontus. Pompey organized his forces, close to 45,000 legionaries, including Lucullus' troops and he signed an alliance with the Parthians who attacked and kept Tigranes busy in the east. Mithridates massed his army, some 30,000 men and 2-3,000 cavalry in the heights of Dasteira in lesser Armenia, Pompey fought to encircle him with earthworks for six weeks but Mithridates eventually retreated north. Pompey pursued and managed to catch his forces by surprise in the night, the Pontic army suffered heavy casualties. After the battle Pompey founded the city of Nicopolis. Mithridates fled to Colchis, and later to his son Machares in the crimea in 65 BC. Pompey now headed east into Armenia, where Tigranes submitted to him, placing his royal diadem at his feet. Pompey took most of Tigranes' empire in the east but left him as king of Armenia. Meanwhile Mithridates was organizing a defense of the Crimea when his son Pharnaces revolted against him with the army, and he was forced to commit suicide or was assassinated.
Most of the western half of Pontus and the Greek cities of the coast including Sinope, was annexed directly as part of the Roman province of Bithynia et Pontus
. The interior and eastern coast remained an independent client kingdom. The Bosporan Kingdom
also remained independent under Pharnaces II of Pontus
as an ally and friend of Rome. Colchis
was also made into a client Kingdom. Pharnaces II later made an attempt at reconquering Pontus. During the civil war of Caesar and Pompey, he invaded Asia minor (48 BC), taking Colchis, lesser Armenia, Pontus and Cappadocia and defeating a Roman army at Nicopolis. Caesar responded swiftly and defeated him at Zela, where he uttered the famous phrase 'Veni, vidi, vici
'. Pontic kings continued to rule the client Kingdom of Pontus, Colchis and Cilicia until Polemon II was forced to abdicate the Pontic throne by Nero in 62 AD.
Persian people
The Persian people are part of the Iranian peoples who speak the modern Persian language and closely akin Iranian dialects and languages. The origin of the ethnic Iranian/Persian peoples are traced to the Ancient Iranian peoples, who were part of the ancient Indo-Iranians and themselves part of...
origin on the southern coast of the Black Sea
Black Sea
The Black Sea is bounded by Europe, Anatolia and the Caucasus and is ultimately connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Mediterranean and the Aegean seas and various straits. The Bosphorus strait connects it to the Sea of Marmara, and the strait of the Dardanelles connects that sea to the Aegean...
. It was founded by Mithridates I
Mithridates I of Pontus
Mithridates I Ctistes was the founder of the kingdom of Pontus in Anatolia....
in 291 BC and lasted until its conquest by the Roman Republic
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic was the period of the ancient Roman civilization where the government operated as a republic. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, traditionally dated around 508 BC, and its replacement by a government headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and...
in 63 BC. The kingdom grew to its largest extent under Mithridates VI the Great, who conquered Colchis
Colchis
In ancient geography, Colchis or Kolkhis was an ancient Georgian state kingdom and region in Western Georgia, which played an important role in the ethnic and cultural formation of the Georgian nation.The Kingdom of Colchis contributed significantly to the development of medieval Georgian...
, Cappadocia
Cappadocia
Cappadocia is a historical region in Central Anatolia, largely in Nevşehir Province.In the time of Herodotus, the Cappadocians were reported as occupying the whole region from Mount Taurus to the vicinity of the Euxine...
, Bithynia
Bithynia
Bithynia was an ancient region, kingdom and Roman province in the northwest of Asia Minor, adjoining the Propontis, the Thracian Bosporus and the Euxine .-Description:...
, the Greek colonies of the Tauric Chersonesos and for a brief time the Roman province of Asia. After a long struggle with Rome in the Mithridatic Wars
Mithridatic Wars
There were three Mithridatic Wars between Rome and the Kingdom of Pontus in the 1st century BC. They are named for Mithridates VI who was King of Pontus at the time....
, Pontus was defeated, part of it was incorporated into the Roman Republic
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic was the period of the ancient Roman civilization where the government operated as a republic. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, traditionally dated around 508 BC, and its replacement by a government headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and...
as the province Bithynia et Pontus
Bithynia et Pontus
Bithynia et Pontus was the name of a province of the Roman empire on the Black Sea coast of Anatolia . It was formed by the amalgamation of the former kingdoms of Bithynia and Pontus ....
and the eastern half survived as a client kingdom.
As the greater part of the kingdom lay within the immense region of Cappadocia
Cappadocia
Cappadocia is a historical region in Central Anatolia, largely in Nevşehir Province.In the time of Herodotus, the Cappadocians were reported as occupying the whole region from Mount Taurus to the vicinity of the Euxine...
, which in early ages extended from the borders of Cilicia
Cilicia
In antiquity, Cilicia was the south coastal region of Asia Minor, south of the central Anatolian plateau. It existed as a political entity from Hittite times into the Byzantine empire...
to the Euxine (Black Sea), the kingdom as a whole was at first called 'Cappadocia by Pontus' or 'Cappadocia by the Euxine', but afterwards simply "Pontus," the name Cappadocia being henceforth restricted to the southern half of the region previously included under that title.
Features of Pontus
The Kingdom of Pontus was divided into two distinct areas. The coastal region bordering the Black Sea was divided from the mountainous inland area by the Pontic alps which ran parallel to the coast. The river valleys of Pontus also ran parallel to the coast and were quite fertile, supporting cattle herds and millet, along with fruit trees including Cherry (named for the city of Cerasus), apple and pear. The coastal region was dominated by the Greek cities such as AmastrisAmastris
Amastris also called Amastrine, was a Persian Princess. She was the daughter of Oxyathres, the brother of the Persian King Darius III.-Marriages:...
and Sinope, the latter which became the Pontic capital after its capture. The coast was rich in Timber, fishing and the olive trade. Pontus was also rich in Iron and silver, which were mined near the coast south of Pharnacia, steel from the Chalybian mountains became quite famous in Greece. There are also copper, lead, zinc and arsenic. The Pontic interior also had its fertile river valleys such as the river Lycus
Lycus
Lycus or Lykos , a common name for Greek rivers, seems to have originated in the impression made upon the mind of the beholder by a torrent rushing down the side of a hill, which suggested the idea of a wolf rushing at its prey.Lycus or Lykos may refer to:* Lycus , several people in Greek...
and Iris. The major city of the interior was Amasia
Amasya
- History :Its location in this steep valley makes the city a mountain stronghold, easy to defend, and thus Amasya has had a long and prominent history.-Antiquity:...
, the early Pontic capital, where the Pontic kings had their Palace and royal tombs. After Amasia
Amasya
- History :Its location in this steep valley makes the city a mountain stronghold, easy to defend, and thus Amasya has had a long and prominent history.-Antiquity:...
and a few other cities, the interior was mainly dominated by small villages. The kingdom of Pontus was divided into districts named Eparchies.
The division between coast and interior was also cultural. The coast was mainly Greek and focused on sea trade. The interior was occupied by the Anatolian Cappadocians and Paphlagonians ruled by an Iranian aristocracy which went back to the Persian empire. The interior also had powerful Temples with large estates. The gods of the Kingdom were mostly syncretic, with features of local gods, Persian and Greek Deities. Major gods included the Persian Ahuramazda who was termed Zeus
Zeus
In the ancient Greek religion, Zeus was the "Father of Gods and men" who ruled the Olympians of Mount Olympus as a father ruled the family. He was the god of sky and thunder in Greek mythology. His Roman counterpart is Jupiter and his Etruscan counterpart is Tinia.Zeus was the child of Cronus...
Stratios, the Moon god Men
Men (god)
Men was a god worshipped in the western interior parts of Anatolia.The roots of the Men cult may go back to Mesopotamia in the fourth millennium BC. Ancient writers describe Men as a local god of the Phrygians....
Pharnacou and Ma (interpreted as Cybele).
Sun gods were particularly popular with the royal house being identified with the Persian god Ahuramazda of the Achaemenid dynasty, both Apollo
Apollo
Apollo is one of the most important and complex of the Olympian deities in Greek and Roman mythology...
and Mithras were worshipped by the Kings. Indeed, the name used by the majority of the Pontic kings was Mithridates which means "given by Mithras". Pontic culture saw a synthesis between Greek and Iranian elements, though the most Hellenized parts of the Kingdom were surely the coastal regions, already Greek in themselves. Epigraphic evidence also shows extensive Hellenistic influence in the interior. By the time of Mithridates VI Eupator, Greek was the official language of the Kingdom though Anatolian languages
Anatolian languages
The Anatolian languages comprise a group of extinct Indo-European languages that were spoken in Asia Minor, the best attested of them being the Hittite language.-Origins:...
continued to be spoken in the interior. The Pontic Kings though they claimed descent from the Persian royal house generally acted as Hellenistic kings and portrayed themselves as such in their coins, mimicking Alexander's royal stater.
Mithridatic Dynasty of Cius
The region of Pontus was originally part of the Persian Satrapy of CappadociaCappadocia
Cappadocia is a historical region in Central Anatolia, largely in Nevşehir Province.In the time of Herodotus, the Cappadocians were reported as occupying the whole region from Mount Taurus to the vicinity of the Euxine...
(Katpatuka). While the Persian dynasty which was to found this kingdom had during the fourth century B.C. ruled the Greek city of Cius
Cius
Cius or Kios , later renamed Prusias ad Mare after king Prusias I of Bithynia, was an ancient Greek city bordering the Propontis , in Bithynia , and had a long history, being mentioned by Aristotle, and Strabo. It was colonized by the Milesians and became a place of much commercial importance...
(or Kios) in Mysia
Mysia
Mysia was a region in the northwest of ancient Asia Minor or Anatolia . It was located on the south coast of the Sea of Marmara. It was bounded by Bithynia on the east, Phrygia on the southeast, Lydia on the south, Aeolis on the southwest, Troad on the west and by the Propontis on the north...
, with its first known member being Mithridates of Cius. His son Ariobarzanes II
Ariobarzanes II of Cius
Ariobarzanes succeeded his kinsman or father, Mithridates or alternatively succeeded another Ariobarzanes I of Cius, as ruler of the Greek town of Cius in Mysia, governing 26 years between 363 and 337 BC for the Persians. It was seemingly his family which in mid-360s BCE revolted from Artaxerxes...
became satrap of Phrygia
Phrygia
In antiquity, Phrygia was a kingdom in the west central part of Anatolia, in what is now modern-day Turkey. The Phrygians initially lived in the southern Balkans; according to Herodotus, under the name of Bryges , changing it to Phruges after their final migration to Anatolia, via the...
. He became a strong ally of Athens
Athens
Athens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
and revolted against Artaxerxes
Artaxerxes II of Persia
Artaxerxes II Mnemon was king of Persia from 404 BC until his death. He was a son of Darius II of Persia and Parysatis.-Reign:...
. However Ariobarzanes was betrayed by his son Mithridates II of Cius
Mithridates II of Cius
Mithridates of Cius succeeded his kinsman or father Ariobarzanes II in 337 BC as ruler of the Greek town of Cius in Mysia . Diodorus assigns him a rule of thirty-five years, but it appears that he did not hold uninterrupted possession of the sovereignty during that period...
. Mithridates II remained as ruler after Alexander's conquests and was a vassal to Antigonus I Monophthalmus
Antigonus I Monophthalmus
Antigonus I Monophthalmus , son of Philip from Elimeia, was a Macedonian nobleman, general, and satrap under Alexander the Great. During his early life he served under Philip II, and he was a major figure in the Wars of the Diadochi after Alexander's death, declaring himself king in 306 BC and...
who briefly ruled Asia Minor after the Partition of Triparadisus
Partition of Triparadisus
The Partition of Triparadisus was a power-sharing agreement passed at Triparadisus in 321 BCE between the generals of Alexander the Great, in which they named a new regent and established the repartition of their satrapies...
. Mithridates was killed by Antigonus in 302 B.C. under suspicion that he was working with his enemy Cassander
Cassander
Cassander , King of Macedonia , was a son of Antipater, and founder of the Antipatrid dynasty...
. Antigonus planned to kill Mithridates' son, also called Mithridates (later named Ktistes, 'founder') but Demetrius I
Demetrius I of Macedon
Demetrius I , called Poliorcetes , son of Antigonus I Monophthalmus and Stratonice, was a king of Macedon...
warned him and he escaped to the east with six horsemen.
Mithridates first went to the city of Cimiata in Paphlagonia
Paphlagonia
Paphlagonia was an ancient area on the Black Sea coast of north central Anatolia, situated between Bithynia to the west and Pontus to the east, and separated from Phrygia by a prolongation to the east of the Bithynian Olympus...
and later to Amasia in Cappadocia
Cappadocia
Cappadocia is a historical region in Central Anatolia, largely in Nevşehir Province.In the time of Herodotus, the Cappadocians were reported as occupying the whole region from Mount Taurus to the vicinity of the Euxine...
. He fought against Seleucus I and in 281 (or 280) BC declared himself ruler of a state in northern Cappadocia and eastern Paphlagonia and ruled from 302 to 266. He further expanded his kingdom to the river Sangrius in the west and his son Ariobarzanes captured Amastris
Amastris
Amastris also called Amastrine, was a Persian Princess. She was the daughter of Oxyathres, the brother of the Persian King Darius III.-Marriages:...
in 279, its first important Black sea port. Mithridates also allied with the newly arrived Galatians and defeated a force sent against him by Ptolemy I. Ptolemy had been expanding his territory in Asia minor since the beginning of the First Syrian war
Syrian Wars
The Syrian Wars were a series of six wars between the Successor states of the Seleucid Empire and the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt during the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC over the region then called Coele-Syria, one of the few avenues into Egypt...
against Antiochus in the mid 270s and was allied with Mithridates' enemy, Heraclea Pontica
Heraclea Pontica
Heraclea Pontica , an ancient city on the coast of Bithynia in Asia Minor, at the mouth of the river Lycus. It was founded by the Greek city-state of Megara c.560-558 and was named after Heracles who the Greeks believed entered the underworld at a cave on the adjoining Archerusian promontory .The...
.
Kingdom of Pontus
We know little of AriobarzanesAriobarzanes of Pontus
Ariobarzanes was the second king of Pontus, succeeding his father Mithridates I Ctistes in 266 BC and died in an uncertain date between 258 and 240. He obtained possession of the city of Amastris in Paphlagonia, which was surrendered to him...
short reign, when he died his son Mithridates II (c. 250—189) became king and was attacked by the Galatians. Mithridates II received aid from Heraclea Pontica
Heraclea Pontica
Heraclea Pontica , an ancient city on the coast of Bithynia in Asia Minor, at the mouth of the river Lycus. It was founded by the Greek city-state of Megara c.560-558 and was named after Heracles who the Greeks believed entered the underworld at a cave on the adjoining Archerusian promontory .The...
who was also at war with the Galatians at this time. Mithridates went on to support Antiochus Hierax against his brother Seleucus II Callinicus. Seleucus was defeated in Anatolia by Hierax, Mithridates and the Galatians. Mithridates also attacked Sinope
Sinope
Sinope may refer to:*Sinop, Turkey, a city on the Black Sea, historically known as Sinope** Battle of Sinop, 1853 naval battle in the Sinop port*Sinope , in Greek mythology, daughter of Asopus*Sinope , a moon of the planet Jupiter...
in 220 but failed to take the city. He married Seleucus II's sister and gave his daughter to Antiochus III, seeking recognition for his new kingdom and to create strong ties with the Seleucid empire. The sources are silent on Pontus for the following years after the death of Mithridates II, when his son Mithridates III ruled (c. 220-198/88).
Pharnaces I of Pontus
Pharnaces I , fifth king of Pontus and was of Persian and Greek Macedonian ancestry. He was the son of King Mithridates III of Pontus and his wife Laodice, whom he succeeded on the throne. Pharnaces had two siblings: a brother called Mithridates IV of Pontus and a sister called Laodice who...
(189-159 BC) was much more successful in his expansion against the Greek coastal cities. He joined in a war with Prusias of Bithynia
Bithynia
Bithynia was an ancient region, kingdom and Roman province in the northwest of Asia Minor, adjoining the Propontis, the Thracian Bosporus and the Euxine .-Description:...
against Eumenes of Pergamon
Pergamon
Pergamon , or Pergamum, was an ancient Greek city in modern-day Turkey, in Mysia, today located from the Aegean Sea on a promontory on the north side of the river Caicus , that became the capital of the Kingdom of Pergamon during the Hellenistic period, under the Attalid dynasty, 281–133 BC...
in 188 BC, but the two made peace in 183 after Bithynia suffered a series of reversals. He took Sinope
Sinope
Sinope may refer to:*Sinop, Turkey, a city on the Black Sea, historically known as Sinope** Battle of Sinop, 1853 naval battle in the Sinop port*Sinope , in Greek mythology, daughter of Asopus*Sinope , a moon of the planet Jupiter...
in 182 B.C. and though the Rhodians complained to Rome over this, nothing was done. Pharnaces also took the coastal cities of Cotyora, Pharnacia and Trapezus
Trapezus
Trapezus, Trapezounta, and Trapezounta can refer to:*Trabzon, an ancient settlement on the Black Sea in Turkey.*Trapezus, a city in the province Arcadia in Greece...
in the east, effectively controlling most of the northern Anatolian coastline. Despite Roman attempts to keep the peace, Pharnaces fought against Eumenes of Pergamon and Ariarathes of Cappadocia, while he was initially successful, it seems he was overmatched by 179 when he was forced to sign a treaty. He had to give up all lands in Galatia
Galatia
Ancient Galatia was an area in the highlands of central Anatolia in modern Turkey. Galatia was named for the immigrant Gauls from Thrace , who settled here and became its ruling caste in the 3rd century BC, following the Gallic invasion of the Balkans in 279 BC. It has been called the "Gallia" of...
, and Paphlagonia
Paphlagonia
Paphlagonia was an ancient area on the Black Sea coast of north central Anatolia, situated between Bithynia to the west and Pontus to the east, and separated from Phrygia by a prolongation to the east of the Bithynian Olympus...
he had obtained and the city of Tium, but he kept Sinope. Seeking to extend his influence to the north, Pharnaces allied with the cities in the Chersonesus and with other black sea cities such as Odessus on the Romanian coast. Pharnaces' brother, Mithridates IV
Mithridates IV of Pontus
Mithridates IV of Pontus or known by his full name Mithridates Philopator Philadelphus was a prince and sixth King of the Kingdom of Pontus....
Philopator Philadelphus adopted a peaceful, pro-Roman policy. He sent aid to the Roman ally Attalus II of Pergamon against Prusias II of Bithynia in 155.
His successor, Mithridates V of Pontus
Mithridates V of Pontus
Mithridates V Euergetes ; also known as Mithridates V of Pontus, Mithradates V of Pontus and Mithradates V Euergetes, was a Prince and seventh King of the wealthy Kingdom of Pontus.Mithridates V was of Greek Macedonian and Persian ancestry...
Euergetes remained a friend of Rome and sent ships and a small force of auxiliares to aid Rome in the third Punic war in 149 BC. He also sent troops for the war against Eumenes III
Eumenes III
Eumenes III was the pretender to the throne of Pergamon.When the Pergamene King Attalus III died in 133 BC, he bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans...
(Aristonicus) who had usurped the Pergamene throne after the death of Attalus III
Attalus III
Attalus III Philometor Euergetes was the last Attalid king of Pergamon, ruling from 138 BC to 133 BC....
. After Rome received the Kingdom of Pergamon
Pergamon
Pergamon , or Pergamum, was an ancient Greek city in modern-day Turkey, in Mysia, today located from the Aegean Sea on a promontory on the north side of the river Caicus , that became the capital of the Kingdom of Pergamon during the Hellenistic period, under the Attalid dynasty, 281–133 BC...
from Attalus III, they turned part of it into the province of Asia, while giving the rest to loyal allied kings. For his loyalty he was awarded the region of Phrygia
Phrygia
In antiquity, Phrygia was a kingdom in the west central part of Anatolia, in what is now modern-day Turkey. The Phrygians initially lived in the southern Balkans; according to Herodotus, under the name of Bryges , changing it to Phruges after their final migration to Anatolia, via the...
Major. The kingdom of Cappadocia
Cappadocia
Cappadocia is a historical region in Central Anatolia, largely in Nevşehir Province.In the time of Herodotus, the Cappadocians were reported as occupying the whole region from Mount Taurus to the vicinity of the Euxine...
received Lycaonia
Lycaonia
In ancient geography, Lycaonia was a large region in the interior of Asia Minor, north of Mount Taurus. It was bounded on the east by Cappadocia, on the north by Galatia, on the west by Phrygia and Pisidia, while to the south it extended to the chain of Mount Taurus, where it bordered on the...
and Mithridates received Phrygia. Because of this it seems reasonable to assume that Pontus had some sort of control over Galatia
Galatia
Ancient Galatia was an area in the highlands of central Anatolia in modern Turkey. Galatia was named for the immigrant Gauls from Thrace , who settled here and became its ruling caste in the 3rd century BC, following the Gallic invasion of the Balkans in 279 BC. It has been called the "Gallia" of...
, since Phrygia does not border Pontus directly. It is possible that he inherited part of Paphlagonia
Paphlagonia
Paphlagonia was an ancient area on the Black Sea coast of north central Anatolia, situated between Bithynia to the west and Pontus to the east, and separated from Phrygia by a prolongation to the east of the Bithynian Olympus...
after the death of its King, Pylaemenes. Mithridates V married his daughter Laodice to the king of Cappadocia, Ariarathes VI of Cappadocia
Ariarathes VI of Cappadocia
Ariarathes VI Epiphanes Philopator , King of Cappadocia, was the youngest son of Ariarathes V of Cappadocia and Nysa of Cappadocia.He reigned about 14 years . He was a child at his succession, and for this reason the power was kept by his mother who acted as his regent...
and he also went on to invade Cappadocia, though the details of this war are unknown. Hellenization continued under Mithridates V, he was the first king to widely recruit Greek mercenaries in the Agean, he was honored at Delos and he depicted himself as Apollo in his coins. Mithridates was assassinated at Sinope in 121/0, the details of which are unclear.
Because both sons of Mithridates V, Mithridates VI and Mithridates Chrestus
Mithridates Chrestus
Mithridates Chrestus was a Prince and co-ruler of the Kingdom of Pontus....
, were still children, Pontus now came under the regency of his wife Laodice. She favored Chrestus and Mithridates VI escaped the Pontic court. Legend would later say this is the time he traveled through Asia Minor, building his resistance to poisons and learning all of the languages of his subjects. He returned in 113 in BC to depose his mother and she was thrown into prison, he eventually also had his brother killed.
Mithridates VI Eupator
Mithridates VI Eupator 'the Good Father' carried a decisive anti-Roman agenda, expounding Greek and Iranian culture against an ever expanding Roman influence. Rome had recently created the province of Asia in Anatolia, and it had also rescinded the region of Phrygia Major from Pontus during the reign of Laodice. Mithridates began his expansion by inheriting Lesser ArmeniaLesser Armenia
Lesser Armenia , also known as Armenia Minor and Armenia Inferior, refers to the Armenian populated regions, primarily to the West and North-West of the ancient Armenian Kingdom...
from king Antipater (Precise Date unknown, 115-106) and by conquering the Kingdom of Colchis
Colchis
In ancient geography, Colchis or Kolkhis was an ancient Georgian state kingdom and region in Western Georgia, which played an important role in the ethnic and cultural formation of the Georgian nation.The Kingdom of Colchis contributed significantly to the development of medieval Georgian...
. Colchis was an important region in black sea trade, rich with gold, wax, hemp and honey. The cities of the Tauric Chersonesus now appealed for his aid against the Scythians in the north. Mithridates sent 6,000 men under general Diophantus, after various campaigns in the north of the Crimea he controlled all of the Chersonesus. Mithridates also developed trade links with cities on the western black sea coast.
At the time Rome was fighting the Jugurthine
Jugurthine War
The Jugurthine War takes its name from the Berber king Jugurtha , nephew and later adopted son of Micipsa, King of Numidia.-Jugurtha and Numidia:...
and Cimbric wars. Mithridates and Nicomedes of Bithynia both invaded Paphlagonia and divided it amongst themselves. A Roman embassy was sent but it accomplished nothing. Mithridates also took a part of Galatia which had been part of his father's kingdom in the past. Mithridates also intervened in Cappadocia, where his sister Laodice was queen. In 116 the king of Cappadocia Ariarathes VI was murdered by the Cappadocian noble Gordius at the behest of Mithridates and Laodice ruled as regent over the sons of Ariarathes until 102 BC. After Nicomedes III of Bithynia
Nicomedes III of Bithynia
Nicomedes III Euergetes was the king of Bithynia, from c. 127 BC to c. 94 BC. He was the son and successor of Nicomedes II of Bithynia by an unnamed woman....
married Laodice, he tried to intervene in the region by sending troops and Mithridates swiftly invaded, placing his nephew Ariarathes VII of Cappadocia
Ariarathes VII of Cappadocia
Ariarathes VII Philometor , King of Cappadocia, was the first son of King Ariarathes VI of Cappadocia and his wife Laodice of Cappadocia. Ariarathes VII had an older sister called Nysa and a younger brother called Ariarathes VIII of Cappadocia....
on the throne of Cappadocia. However, war soon broke out between the two and Mithridates invaded with a large Pontic army, but Ariarathes VII was murdered in 101 BC before any battle was fought. Mithridates then installed his eight year old son, Ariarathes IX of Cappadocia
Ariarathes IX of Cappadocia
Ariarathes IX Eusebes Philopator , was made king of Cappadocia by his father King Mithridates VI of Pontus after the assassination of Ariarathes VII of Cappadocia. Since he was only eight years old, he was put under the regency of the Cappadocian Gordius...
as king, and Gordius as regent. In 97 Cappadocia rebelled but it was swiftly put down by Mithridates. Afterwards Mithridates and Nicomedes III both sent embassies to Rome. The Roman Senate decreed that Mithridates had to withdraw from Cappadocia and Nicomedes from Paphlagonia. Mithridates obliged and the Romans installed Ariobarzanes in Cappadocia. In 91/0 BC while Rome was busy in the Social War
Social War
The Allied War was a war waged from 91 to 88 BC between the Roman Republic and several of the other cities in Italy, which prior to the war had been Roman allies for centuries.-Origins:The Early Italian campaigns saw the Roman conquest of Italy...
in Italy, Mithridates encouraged his new ally and son in law, King Tigranes the Great
Tigranes the Great
Tigranes the Great was emperor of Armenia under whom the country became, for a short time, the strongest state east of the Roman Republic. He was a member of the Artaxiad Royal House...
of Armenia to invade Cappadocia. He did so, and Ariobarzanes fled to Rome. Mithridates then deposed Nicomedes IV from Bithynia placing Socrates Chrestus
Socrates Chrestus
Socrates Chrestus was a Greek Prince and King of Bithynia.Socrates was the second son born to the Monarchs Nysa and Nicomedes III of Bithynia. He had a sister called Nysa and his eldest brother was his father’s heir Nicomedes IV of Bithynia...
on the throne.
The First Mithridatic War
A Roman army under Manius Aquillius arrived in Asia Minor in 90 BC which prompted Mithridates and Tigranes to withdraw. CappadociaCappadocia
Cappadocia is a historical region in Central Anatolia, largely in Nevşehir Province.In the time of Herodotus, the Cappadocians were reported as occupying the whole region from Mount Taurus to the vicinity of the Euxine...
and Bithynia
Bithynia
Bithynia was an ancient region, kingdom and Roman province in the northwest of Asia Minor, adjoining the Propontis, the Thracian Bosporus and the Euxine .-Description:...
were restored to their respective monarchs, but now they faced large debts to Rome due to their bribes for the Roman senators and Nicomedes IV was eventually convinced by Aquillius to attack Pontus in order to repay them. He plundered as far as Amastris
Amastris
Amastris also called Amastrine, was a Persian Princess. She was the daughter of Oxyathres, the brother of the Persian King Darius III.-Marriages:...
, and returned with much loot. Mithridates invaded Cappadocia once again, and Rome declared war.
In the summer of 89 BC, Mithridates invaded Bithynia and defeated Nicomedes and Aquillius in battle. He moved swiftly into Roman Asia and resistance crumbled; by 88 he had obtained the surrender of most of the newly created province. He was welcomed in many cities who chafed under Roman tax farming
Tax farming
Farming is a technique of financial management, namely the process of commuting , by its assignment by legal contract to a third party, a future uncertain revenue stream into fixed and certain periodic rents, in consideration for which commutation a discount in value received is suffered...
. In 88 Mithridates also ordered the massacre of at least 80,000 Romans and Italians in what became known as the 'Asiatic Vespers
Asiatic Vespers
The Asiatic Vespers refers to an infamous episode during the First Mithridatic War. In response to increasing Roman power in Anatolia, the king of Pontus, Mithridates the Great, tapped into local discontent with the Romans and their taxes to orchestrate the execution of 80,000 Roman and Italian...
'. Many Greek cities in Asia minor happily carried out the orders; this ensured that they could no longer return to an alliance with Rome. In the autumn of 88 Mithridates also placed Rhodes
Rhodes
Rhodes is an island in Greece, located in the eastern Aegean Sea. It is the largest of the Dodecanese islands in terms of both land area and population, with a population of 117,007, and also the island group's historical capital. Administratively the island forms a separate municipality within...
under siege, but he failed to take it.
In Athens
Athens
Athens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
, anti-Roman elements were emboldened by the news and soon formed an alliance with Mithridates. A joint Pontic-Athenian naval expedition took Delos
Delos
The island of Delos , isolated in the centre of the roughly circular ring of islands called the Cyclades, near Mykonos, is one of the most important mythological, historical and archaeological sites in Greece...
in 88 BC, and granted the city to Athens. Many Greek city-states now joined Mithridates, including Sparta
Sparta
Sparta or Lacedaemon, was a prominent city-state in ancient Greece, situated on the banks of the River Eurotas in Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese. It emerged as a political entity around the 10th century BC, when the invading Dorians subjugated the local, non-Dorian population. From c...
, the Achaean League
Achaean League
The Achaean League was a Hellenistic era confederation of Greek city states on the northern and central Peloponnese, which existed between 280 BC and 146 BC...
and most of the Boeotian League except Thespiae
Thespiae
Thespiae was an ancient Greek city in Boeotia. It stood on level ground commanded by the low range of hills which runs eastward from the foot of Mount Helicon to Thebes, near modern Thespies.-History:...
. Finally in 87 BC, Lucius Cornelius Sulla
Lucius Cornelius Sulla
Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix , known commonly as Sulla, was a Roman general and statesman. He had the rare distinction of holding the office of consul twice, as well as that of dictator...
departed from Italy with five legions. He marched through Boeotia
Boeotia
Boeotia, also spelled Beotia and Bœotia , is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the region of Central Greece. It was also a region of ancient Greece. Its capital is Livadeia, the second largest city being Thebes.-Geography:...
which easily surrendered, and began laying siege to Athens and the Piraeus
Piraeus
Piraeus is a city in the region of Attica, Greece. Piraeus is located within the Athens Urban Area, 12 km southwest from its city center , and lies along the east coast of the Saronic Gulf....
(the Athenian port city, no longer connected by the Long Walls
Long Walls
The Long Walls , in Ancient Greece, were walls built from a city to its port, providing a secure connection to the sea even during times of siege. Although long walls were built at several locations in Greece—Corinth and Megara being two of the best known examples—the phrase "long...
). Athens fell in March 86 BC and the city was sacked. After stiff resistance, Archelaus the Pontic general in the Piraeus left by sea and Sulla utterly destroyed the port city. Meanwhile Mithridates had sent his son Arcathias with a large army via Thrace into Greece.
Battle of Chaeronea (86 BC)
For the earlier battle, see Battle of Chaeronea The Battle of Chaeronea was the victory of the Roman forces of Lucius Cornelius Sulla over King Mithridates VI of Pontus near Chaeronea, in Boeotia, in 86 BC during the First Mithridatic War. This battle is described in three ancient texts, although...
, Sulla inflicted horrible casualties on Archelaus, who nevertheless retreated and continued to raid Greece with the Pontic fleet. Archelaus regrouped and attacked a second time at the battle of Orchomenus
Battle of Orchomenus
The Battle of Orchomenus was fought in 85 BC between Rome and the forces of Mithridates VI of Pontus. The Roman army was led by Lucius Cornelius Sulla, while Mithridates' army was led by Archelaus. The Roman force was victorious, and Archelaus later defected to Rome...
in 85 BC, but was once again defeated and suffered heavy losses. Because of the heavy losses and the subsequent unrest they stirred in Asia Minor as well as the Roman army now campaigning in Bithynia, Mithridates was eventually forced to accept a peace deal. Mithridates and Sulla met in 85 BC at Dardanus. Sulla decreed that Mithridates had to surrender Roman Asia and to give back Bithynia and Cappadocia to their former kings. He also had to pay 2,000 talents and provide ships. Mithridates would retain the rest of his holdings, and become an ally of Rome.
Second and Third Mithridatic wars
The treaty with Sulla was not to last. From 83 to 82 B.C. Mithridates fought against and defeated Licinius Murena who had been left by Sulla to organize the province of Asia. The so called Second Mithridatic war ended without any territorial gains by either side. The Romans now began securing the coastal region of Lycia and Pamphylia from pirates and established Roman control over PisidiaPisidia
Pisidia was a region of ancient Asia Minor located north of Lycia, and bordering Caria, Lydia, Phrygia and Pamphylia. It corresponds roughly to the modern-day province of Antalya in Turkey...
and Lycaonia
Lycaonia
In ancient geography, Lycaonia was a large region in the interior of Asia Minor, north of Mount Taurus. It was bounded on the east by Cappadocia, on the north by Galatia, on the west by Phrygia and Pisidia, while to the south it extended to the chain of Mount Taurus, where it bordered on the...
. Mithridates now faced Roman commanders on two fronts when in 74 the consul Lucullus
Lucullus
Lucius Licinius Lucullus , was an optimate politician of the late Roman Republic, closely connected with Sulla Felix...
took over Cilicia
Cilicia
In antiquity, Cilicia was the south coastal region of Asia Minor, south of the central Anatolian plateau. It existed as a political entity from Hittite times into the Byzantine empire...
. The Cilician pirates had not been completely defeated however, and Mithridates signed an alliance with them. He was also allied with the government of Quintus Sertorius
Quintus Sertorius
Quintus Sertorius was a Roman statesman and general, born in Nursia, in Sabine territory. His brilliance as a military commander was shown most clearly in his battles against Rome for control of Hispania...
in Spain and with his help reorganized some of his troops in the Roman legionary pattern with short stabbing swords.
The Third Mithridatic war broke out when Nicomedes IV of Bithynia died without heirs in 75 and left his kingdom to Rome. In 74 BC Rome mobilized its armies in Asia Minor, probably provoked by some move made by Mithridates, but our sources are not clear on this. In 73 Mithridates invaded Bithynia and his fleet defeated the Romans off Chalcedon
Chalcedon
Chalcedon , sometimes transliterated as Chalkedon) was an ancient maritime town of Bithynia, in Asia Minor, almost directly opposite Byzantium, south of Scutari . It is now a district of the city of Istanbul named Kadıköy...
and laid siege to Cyzicus
Cyzicus
Cyzicus was an ancient town of Mysia in Anatolia in the current Balıkesir Province of Turkey. It was located on the shoreward side of the present Kapıdağ Peninsula , a tombolo which is said to have originally been an island in the Sea of Marmara only to be connected to the mainland in historic...
. Lucullus
Lucullus
Lucius Licinius Lucullus , was an optimate politician of the late Roman Republic, closely connected with Sulla Felix...
marched from Phrygia
Phrygia
In antiquity, Phrygia was a kingdom in the west central part of Anatolia, in what is now modern-day Turkey. The Phrygians initially lived in the southern Balkans; according to Herodotus, under the name of Bryges , changing it to Phruges after their final migration to Anatolia, via the...
with his five legions and forced Mithridates to retreat back to Pontus. In 72 BC Lucullus invaded Pontus through Galatia
Galatia
Ancient Galatia was an area in the highlands of central Anatolia in modern Turkey. Galatia was named for the immigrant Gauls from Thrace , who settled here and became its ruling caste in the 3rd century BC, following the Gallic invasion of the Balkans in 279 BC. It has been called the "Gallia" of...
and marched north following the river Halys to the north coast, he invested Amisus which withstood siege until 70 BC. In 71 he marched through the Iris and Lycus river valleys and established his base in Cabeira. Mithridates sent his cavalry to cut his supply line to Cappadocia
Cappadocia
Cappadocia is a historical region in Central Anatolia, largely in Nevşehir Province.In the time of Herodotus, the Cappadocians were reported as occupying the whole region from Mount Taurus to the vicinity of the Euxine...
in the south, but they suffered heavy casualties. Mithridates, still unwilling to fight a decisive engagement now began a retreat to Lesser Armenia
Lesser Armenia
Lesser Armenia , also known as Armenia Minor and Armenia Inferior, refers to the Armenian populated regions, primarily to the West and North-West of the ancient Armenian Kingdom...
, where he expected aid from his ally Tigranes the great. Because of his now weakened cavalry, the retreat turned into an all out rout and most of the Pontic army was destroyed or captured. These events led Machares
Machares
Machares was a Pontian prince and son of King Mithridates VI of Pontus and Queen Laodice. He was made by his father ruler of the Bosporan Kingdom after Mithridates, for the second time, reduced that country, after the short war with the Roman Murena, in 80 BC....
the son of Mithridates and ruler of the Crimean Bosporus to seek an alliance with Rome. Mithridates fled to Armenia.
In the summer of 69 Lucullus
Lucullus
Lucius Licinius Lucullus , was an optimate politician of the late Roman Republic, closely connected with Sulla Felix...
invaded Armenian territory, marching with 12,000 men through Cappadocia into Sophene
Sophene
Sophene , or ) was a province of the Armenian Kingdom and of the Roman Empire, located in the south-west of the kingdom. It currently lies in modern-day southeastern Turkey....
, his target was Tigranocerta the new capital of Tigranes's empire and Tigranes retreated to gather his forces. Lucullus laid siege to the city, and Tigranes returned with his army including large numbers of heavily armored cavalrymen termed Cataphracts, vastly outnumbering Lucullus' force. Despite this, Lucullus led his men in a charge against the Armenian horse and won a great victory at the Battle of Tigranocerta
Battle of Tigranocerta
The Battle of Tigranocerta was fought on October 6, 69 BC between the forces of the Roman Republic and the army of the Kingdom of Armenia led by King Tigranes the Great. The Roman force was led by Consul Lucius Licinius Lucullus, and Tigranes was defeated...
. Tigranes fled north while Lucullus destroyed his new capital city and dismantled his holdings in the south by granting independence to Sophene and returning Syria back to the Seleucid king Antiochus XIII Asiaticus
Antiochus XIII Asiaticus
Antiochus XIII Dionysus Philopator Kallinikos, known as Asiaticus was one of the last rulers of the Greek Seleucid kingdom.He was son of king Antiochus X Eusebes and the Ptolemaic princess Cleopatra Selene I, who acted as regent for the boy after his father's death sometime between 92 and 85 BC...
. In 68 BC, Lucullus invaded northern Armenia, ravaging the country and captured Nisibis
Nisibis
Nusaybin Nisêbîn) is a city in Mardin Province, Turkey, populated mainly by Kurds. Earlier Arameans, Arabs, and Armenians lived in the city. The population of the city is 83,832 as of 2009.-Ancient Period:...
, but Tigranes avoided battle. Meanwhile Mithridates invaded Pontus, and in 67 he defeated a large Roman force near Zela
Zile
', also known as Zela, is a city and a district of Tokat Province, Turkey. Zile lies to the south of Amasya and the west of Tokat in north-central Turkey...
. Lucullus now faced with tired and discontent troops, withdrew to Pontus, then to Galatia and he was replaced by two new consuls arriving from Italy with fresh legions, Marcius Rex and Acilius Glabrio. Mithridates now recovered Pontus while Tigranes invaded Cappadocia.
In response to increasing Piratical activity in the eastern Mediterranean, the senate granted Pompey
Pompey
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, also known as Pompey or Pompey the Great , was a military and political leader of the late Roman Republic...
extensive Proconsul
Proconsul
A proconsul was a governor of a province in the Roman Republic appointed for one year by the senate. In modern usage, the title has been used for a person from one country ruling another country or bluntly interfering in another country's internal affairs.-Ancient Rome:In the Roman Republic, a...
ar Imperium
Imperium
Imperium is a Latin word which, in a broad sense, translates roughly as 'power to command'. In ancient Rome, different kinds of power or authority were distinguished by different terms. Imperium, referred to the sovereignty of the state over the individual...
throughout the Mediterranean in 67 BC. Pompey eliminated the pirates, and in 66 he was assigned command in Asia Minor to deal with Pontus. Pompey organized his forces, close to 45,000 legionaries, including Lucullus' troops and he signed an alliance with the Parthians who attacked and kept Tigranes busy in the east. Mithridates massed his army, some 30,000 men and 2-3,000 cavalry in the heights of Dasteira in lesser Armenia, Pompey fought to encircle him with earthworks for six weeks but Mithridates eventually retreated north. Pompey pursued and managed to catch his forces by surprise in the night, the Pontic army suffered heavy casualties. After the battle Pompey founded the city of Nicopolis. Mithridates fled to Colchis, and later to his son Machares in the crimea in 65 BC. Pompey now headed east into Armenia, where Tigranes submitted to him, placing his royal diadem at his feet. Pompey took most of Tigranes' empire in the east but left him as king of Armenia. Meanwhile Mithridates was organizing a defense of the Crimea when his son Pharnaces revolted against him with the army, and he was forced to commit suicide or was assassinated.
Roman province and client kingdoms
Bithynia et Pontus
Bithynia et Pontus was the name of a province of the Roman empire on the Black Sea coast of Anatolia . It was formed by the amalgamation of the former kingdoms of Bithynia and Pontus ....
. The interior and eastern coast remained an independent client kingdom. The Bosporan Kingdom
Bosporan Kingdom
The Bosporan Kingdom or the Kingdom of the Cimmerian Bosporus was an ancient state, located in eastern Crimea and the Taman Peninsula on the shores of the Cimmerian Bosporus...
also remained independent under Pharnaces II of Pontus
Pharnaces II of Pontus
Pharnaces II of Pontus, also known as Pharnaces II was a prince, then King of Pontus and the Bosporan until his death. He was a monarch of Persian and Greek Macedonian ancestry. Pharnaces II was the youngest son and child born to King Mithridates VI of Pontus from his first wife, his sister Queen...
as an ally and friend of Rome. Colchis
Colchis
In ancient geography, Colchis or Kolkhis was an ancient Georgian state kingdom and region in Western Georgia, which played an important role in the ethnic and cultural formation of the Georgian nation.The Kingdom of Colchis contributed significantly to the development of medieval Georgian...
was also made into a client Kingdom. Pharnaces II later made an attempt at reconquering Pontus. During the civil war of Caesar and Pompey, he invaded Asia minor (48 BC), taking Colchis, lesser Armenia, Pontus and Cappadocia and defeating a Roman army at Nicopolis. Caesar responded swiftly and defeated him at Zela, where he uttered the famous phrase 'Veni, vidi, vici
Veni, vidi, vici
"Veni, vidi, vici" is a Latin sentence reportedly written by Julius Caesar in 47 BC as a comment on his short war with Pharnaces II of Pontus in the city of Zela ....
'. Pontic kings continued to rule the client Kingdom of Pontus, Colchis and Cilicia until Polemon II was forced to abdicate the Pontic throne by Nero in 62 AD.