Kemalist ideology
Encyclopedia
Kemalist Ideology, "Kemalism" or also known as the "Six Arrows" is the principle that defines the basic characteristics of the Republic of Turkey. It was developed by the Turkish national movement
and its leader Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
.
and pragmatism
have been the foundation of Kemalism. There are six fundamental pillars of the ideology. Secularism
and reformism
principles were accepted and entered into the constitution following the first four. The principles came to be recognized as unchangeable and sacrosanct. These principles were formulated and applied but not defined as an ideology during the life of Atatürk.
Republicanism
Kemalist ideology replaced the absolutism of the monarchy (Ottoman Dynasty
) with the rule of law, popular sovereignty and the civic virtue with an emphasis on liberty practiced by citizens. Kemalist republicanism defines a constitutional republic
, where representatives of the people are elected and must govern according to existing constitutional law that limits the government's power over citizens. The head(s) of state and other officials are chosen by election, rather than inheriting their positions, and their decisions are subject to judicial review. In defending the change from Ottoman State, Kemalism claims that all laws of Republic of Turkey should be inspired by actual needs here on Earth as a basic fact of national life. Kemalism asserts that only the republican system can best represent the wishes of the people.
Among many forms of "republican systems
," the "Kemalist republic" is a representative democracy
with a Parliament elected in general elections, a President
as head of state elected by Parliament and serving for a limited term, a Prime Minister
appointed by the President, and other Ministers appointed by Parliament. The Kemalist President does not have direct executive powers, but has limited veto powers, and the right to contest with referendum. The day-to-day running of government is the responsibility of the Council of Ministers formed by the Prime Minister and the other Ministers. There is a separation of powers
between the executive (President and Council of Ministers), the legislative (Parliament) and the judiciary, in which no one branch of government has authority over another–although parliament is charged with the supervision of the Council of Ministers, which can be compelled to resign by a vote of no-confidence.
The Kemalist republican state (unitary state
) is a state whose three organs of state are governed constitution
ally as one single unit, with one constitution
ally created legislature
. For some issues, the political power
of government
is transferred to lower levels, to local elected assemblies represented by mayors, but the central government
retains the principal right.
is defined as a social revolution in terms of its content and goals, and differs from the western understanding of the term populism greatly. This revolution was led by an elite with an orientation towards the best interest of the general public. The Kemalist reforms brought about a revolutionary change in the status of women. Women were granted the right to vote in 1934. Atatürk stated on a number of occasions that the legitimate rulers of Turkey were common citizens, such as villagers and workers. At the time, this was actually a goal rather than a reality in Turkey.
Kemalist ideology was, in fact, based on the supreme value of Turkish citizenship. A sense of pride associated with this citizenship would give the needed psychological spur for people to work harder and achieve a sense of unity and national identity.
of Kemalist ideology aims to banish religious interference in government affairs, and vice versa; solidified in public education and government-subsidized cultural and legal affairs. It is a rationalist, anti-clerical secularism, differing from that in most predominantly Christian societies, but similar to the concept of laïcité
in France
. Many of Atatürk's reforms
were brought forward to establish secularism, such as the establishment of a modern, secular school system. The roots of Kemalist secularism extend to the Ottoman Empire, especially the Tanzimat
period and the later Second Constitutional Era
. In that period the Ottoman parliament pursued secular policies, which was stated as the reason for the Countercoup (1909)
, because, as the crowd claimed, "the state's hostility to religion became clear". The allegation of hostility to religion of the Ottoman parliament's secular policies also factored in the Arab Revolt
during WWI.
Kemalist secularism does not imply or advocate agnosticism
or nihilism
; it means freedom of thought and independence of the institutions of the state from the dominance of religious thought and religious institutions. In neutralizing political Islam as a force Kemalism aimed at developing a pluralistic (liberal
) Islam
on the social front. The Kemalist principle of secularism is not against an enlightened Islam, but against an Islam opposed to and fighting modernization and democracy. The social narrative of Kemalist secularism continues into the 21st century, with a Turkish Islam
rooted in Sufism
, particularly Naqshbandi
Sufi orders, and punctuated by frontier conditions of Turkey.
on March 3, 1924. The removal of the Ottoman Caliphate
was followed by the removal of its political mechanisms. The article stating that "the established religion of Turkey is Islam" was removed from the constitution on February 5, 1937.
From a political perspective, Kemalism is an anti-clerical secularism which abolished the religious political establishment of the Ottoman Empire. In the Kemalist political perspective politicians cannot claim to be the protector of any religion or religious sect, and such claims constitute sufficient legal grounds for the permanent banning of political parties. The current Prime Minister of Turkey, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
, while mayor of Istanbul
, was once jailed for reciting poetry laced with aggressively religious terms, which was deemed by the judiciary to advocate separatism among the Turkish people, into camps of "believers" and "non-believers".
Controversially, the constitutional concept of laïcité is also used to justify a ban on Muslim women wearing Islamic coverings
such as headscarfs in public universities and other public buildings. Joost Lagendijk, a member of the European Parliament
and chair of the Joint Parliamentary Committee with Turkey, has publicly criticized these clothing restrictions for Muslim women; whereas the European Court of Human Rights
ruled in numerous cases that such restrictions in public buildings and educational institutions do not constitute a violation of human rights.
Kemalism has to balance the space between different religious sects. Religious education, which was originally left to private initiative with after-school courses until 1980, when it was brought to secondary education with a formal curriculum covering religious doctrines. This change of politics to balance religious doctrine is debated. There are three main ideological perspectives in this debate. The first one views this change as a breach of Kemalist secularist ideology, and demands a return to the previous policy. The second perspective accepts the religious education but objects to its compulsory position. The third position accepts the compulsory position except those responsible for minority communities, who wish to have their own religious courses, within the boundaries of the regulations administered by the Ministry of Education.
as a strategy to achieve a modern society. The core of the revolution, in the Kemalist sense, was an accomplished fact. In Kemalist sense there is no possibility of return to the old systems which were deemed backward.
The principle of revolutionism went beyond the recognition of the reforms which were made during Atatürk's lifetime. Atatürk's revolutions in the social and political life are accepted as irreversible. Atatürk never entertained the possibility of a pause or transition phase during the course of the progressive unfolding or implementation of the revolution. The current understanding of this concept can be described as active modification. Turkey and its society, taking over institutions from the West, must add Turkish traits and patterns to them, and adapt them to the Turkish culture, according to Kemalism. The making of the Turkish traits and patterns of these reforms takes generations of cultural and social experience (which results in the collective memory of the Turkish nation).
Nationalism
: The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a nation state from the Turkish remnants of the Ottoman Empire.
Kemalist ideology defines the "Turkish People
" as "those who protect and promote the moral, spiritual, cultural and humanistic values of the Turkish Nation." Kemalist ideology defines the "Turkish Nation" as a nation of Turkish People who always love and seek to exalt their family, country and nation, who know their duties and responsibilities towards the democratic, secular and social state governed by the rule of law, founded on human rights, and on the tenets laid down in the preamble to the constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
defines the Turkish Nation by saying "the folk which constitutes the Republic of Turkey is called the Turkish Nation."
Article 301
of the Turkish Penal code made it a crime to insult Turkishness , but under pressure of the EU, this was changed in 2008 to protect the "Turkish nation" instead of Turkish ethnicity in 2008, an 'imagined' nationhood of people living within the National Pact
borders.
Kemalist nationalism is an extension of the Kemalist modernization movement. It was brought against the political domination of sheikhs, tribal leaders and Islamism
(Islam as a political system). Initially the declaration of the republic was perceived as "Returning to the days of the first caliphs". However, Kemalist nationalism aimed to shift the political legitimacy from autocracy
(Ottoman Dynasty), theocracy
(Caliphate) and feudalism
(tribal leaders) to the active participation of its citizenry, the Turks. Active participation, or the "will of the people", was established with the republican regime and Turkishness rather than other forms of affiliations that were promoted. The shift in affiliation was symbolized with:
The term "Ne mutlu Türküm diyene" was promoted against the "long live the Sultan," "long live the Sheikh" or "long live the Caliph." Kemalist nationalism originates from the social contract
theories, especially from the principles advocated by Jean-Jacques Rousseau
and his Social Contract
. The Kemalist perception of social contract was effected by the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "Millet
" system and the ineffective experimentation with Ottomanism
. Kemalist nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakdown into pieces, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".
Kemalist nationalism's social content does not accept any adjectives placed before the definition of a nation [a nation of ...]; denounces the types of national unity based on racial, religious
, totalitarian and fascist ideologies, by claiming:
Regarding expansionism, Kemalist nationalism opposes imperialism
and aims to promote "peace" in both the domestic and the international arenas.
, and/or shared values defined as a common history, and the will to share a future. Membership is usually gained through birth within the borders of the state and also the principle of jus sanguinis
. Kemalist form of nationality is integrated to the Article 66 of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Every citizen is recognized as a Turk, regardless of ethnicity, belief, and gender, etc. Turkish nationality law
states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.
Kemalism had not only displaced "Pan-Turkism
" as the official state ideology; it also focused on the nation-state's narrower interests, renouncing the concern for the "Outside Turks". Pan-Turkism was an ethnocentric ideology [to unite all ethnically Turkic nations] while Kemalism is polycentric [united under a " common will"] in character. Kemalism wants to have an equal footing among the mainstream world civilizations. Pan-Turkists have consistently emphasized the special attributes of the Turkic people, and wanted to unite all of the Turkic people. Kemalism wants an equal footing (based on respect) and does not aim to unite the people of Turkey with all the other Turkic nations. The Kemalists were not interested in Pan-Turkism and from 1923 to 1950 (the single state period) reacted with particular firmness.
Kemalism had not only displaced "Turanism
" as the official state ideology; it also focused on the Turkish People, within the alive and historical cultures and peoples of Anatolia
[an Anatolian-centered view]. Turanism centered the nation as the union of all Turanian peoples (Tungus, Hungarians, Finns, Estonians
, and Ryukyuans
) stretching from the Altai Mountains in Eastern Asia to the Bosphorus. Kemalism had a narrower definition of language which wanted to remove [purify] the Persian, Arabic, Greek, Latin, etc. words from the language used in Anatolia. Turanian leaders, such as Enver Pasha, wanted an evolving language common to all Turanian peoples, minimizing differences and maximizing similarities between them.
: Kemal Atatürk made clear in his statements and policies that Turkey's complete modernization
was very much dependent on economic and technological development. The principle of Kemalist Statism is generally interpreted to mean that the state was to regulate the country's general economic activities and the state was to engage in areas where private enterprise was not willing to do so, or where private enterprise had proven to be inadequate, or if national interest required it. In the application of the principle of statism, however, the state emerged not only as the principal source of economic activity, but also as the owner of the major industries of the country.
of the Ottoman Empire
. The political experience of the Ottoman Empire
, through Tanzimat
, and the First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire
were synthesized into Kemalism.
The Republican People's Party
was established by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk on September 9, 1923, not long before the declaration of the Republic of Turkey on October 29. The party uses the ideology to symbolize itself.
Jung and Piccoli state that "the Kemalists incorporated certain elements of cultural Pan-Turkism
in order to construct a new, and cohesive nationalist ideology". On the other hand, according to Don Peretz, Turkish nationalism has been free from racism.
Tocci asserts that "Religion was viewed as a potential threat to the Kemalist nation-state", and therefore "the state actively attempted to reduce the role played by religion in private lives." In constructing an identity based on the Western model, the new Turkish state provided laïcité
on its citizens.
Turkish National Movement
The Turkish National Movement encompasses the political and military activities of the Turkish revolutionaries which resulted in the creation and shaping of the Republic of Turkey, as a consequence of the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I....
and its leader Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was an Ottoman and Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, writer, and the first President of Turkey. He is credited with being the founder of the Republic of Turkey....
.
Fundamentals
Atatürk's conception of realismRealism (international relations)
In the study of international relations, Realism or political realism prioritizes national interest and security over ideology, moral concerns and social reconstructions...
and pragmatism
Pragmatism
Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition centered on the linking of practice and theory. It describes a process where theory is extracted from practice, and applied back to practice to form what is called intelligent practice...
have been the foundation of Kemalism. There are six fundamental pillars of the ideology. Secularism
Secularism
Secularism is the principle of separation between government institutions and the persons mandated to represent the State from religious institutions and religious dignitaries...
and reformism
Reformism
Reformism is the belief that gradual democratic changes in a society can ultimately change a society's fundamental economic relations and political structures...
principles were accepted and entered into the constitution following the first four. The principles came to be recognized as unchangeable and sacrosanct. These principles were formulated and applied but not defined as an ideology during the life of Atatürk.
Republicanism
Republicanism
Republicanism is the ideology of governing a nation as a republic, where the head of state is appointed by means other than heredity, often elections. The exact meaning of republicanism varies depending on the cultural and historical context...
Kemalist ideology replaced the absolutism of the monarchy (Ottoman Dynasty
Ottoman Dynasty
The Ottoman Dynasty ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1299 to 1922, beginning with Osman I , though the dynasty was not proclaimed until Orhan Bey declared himself sultan...
) with the rule of law, popular sovereignty and the civic virtue with an emphasis on liberty practiced by citizens. Kemalist republicanism defines a constitutional republic
Constitutional republic
A constitutional republic is a state in which the head of state and other officials are representatives of the people and must govern according to existing constitutional law that limits the government's power over all of its citizens...
, where representatives of the people are elected and must govern according to existing constitutional law that limits the government's power over citizens. The head(s) of state and other officials are chosen by election, rather than inheriting their positions, and their decisions are subject to judicial review. In defending the change from Ottoman State, Kemalism claims that all laws of Republic of Turkey should be inspired by actual needs here on Earth as a basic fact of national life. Kemalism asserts that only the republican system can best represent the wishes of the people.
Among many forms of "republican systems
Republic
A republic is a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people. In modern times, a common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of...
," the "Kemalist republic" is a representative democracy
Representative democracy
Representative democracy is a form of government founded on the principle of elected individuals representing the people, as opposed to autocracy and direct democracy...
with a Parliament elected in general elections, a President
President
A president is a leader of an organization, company, trade union, university, or country.Etymologically, a president is one who presides, who sits in leadership...
as head of state elected by Parliament and serving for a limited term, a Prime Minister
Prime minister
A prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government in a parliamentary system. In many systems, the prime minister selects and may dismiss other members of the cabinet, and allocates posts to members within the government. In most systems, the prime...
appointed by the President, and other Ministers appointed by Parliament. The Kemalist President does not have direct executive powers, but has limited veto powers, and the right to contest with referendum. The day-to-day running of government is the responsibility of the Council of Ministers formed by the Prime Minister and the other Ministers. There is a separation of powers
Separation of powers
The separation of powers, often imprecisely used interchangeably with the trias politica principle, is a model for the governance of a state. The model was first developed in ancient Greece and came into widespread use by the Roman Republic as part of the unmodified Constitution of the Roman Republic...
between the executive (President and Council of Ministers), the legislative (Parliament) and the judiciary, in which no one branch of government has authority over another–although parliament is charged with the supervision of the Council of Ministers, which can be compelled to resign by a vote of no-confidence.
The Kemalist republican state (unitary state
Unitary state
A unitary state is a state governed as one single unit in which the central government is supreme and any administrative divisions exercise only powers that their central government chooses to delegate...
) is a state whose three organs of state are governed constitution
Constitution
A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i.e. constitute, what the entity is...
ally as one single unit, with one constitution
Constitution
A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i.e. constitute, what the entity is...
ally created legislature
Legislature
A legislature is a kind of deliberative assembly with the power to pass, amend, and repeal laws. The law created by a legislature is called legislation or statutory law. In addition to enacting laws, legislatures usually have exclusive authority to raise or lower taxes and adopt the budget and...
. For some issues, the political power
Political power
Political power is a type of power held by a group in a society which allows administration of some or all of public resources, including labour, and wealth. There are many ways to obtain possession of such power. At the nation-state level political legitimacy for political power is held by the...
of government
Government
Government refers to the legislators, administrators, and arbitrators in the administrative bureaucracy who control a state at a given time, and to the system of government by which they are organized...
is transferred to lower levels, to local elected assemblies represented by mayors, but the central government
Central government
A central government also known as a national government, union government and in federal states, the federal government, is the government at the level of the nation-state. The structure of central governments varies from institution to institution...
retains the principal right.
Populism
PopulismPopulism
Populism can be defined as an ideology, political philosophy, or type of discourse. Generally, a common theme compares "the people" against "the elite", and urges social and political system changes. It can also be defined as a rhetorical style employed by members of various political or social...
is defined as a social revolution in terms of its content and goals, and differs from the western understanding of the term populism greatly. This revolution was led by an elite with an orientation towards the best interest of the general public. The Kemalist reforms brought about a revolutionary change in the status of women. Women were granted the right to vote in 1934. Atatürk stated on a number of occasions that the legitimate rulers of Turkey were common citizens, such as villagers and workers. At the time, this was actually a goal rather than a reality in Turkey.
Kemalist ideology was, in fact, based on the supreme value of Turkish citizenship. A sense of pride associated with this citizenship would give the needed psychological spur for people to work harder and achieve a sense of unity and national identity.
Secularism
The secularismSecularism
Secularism is the principle of separation between government institutions and the persons mandated to represent the State from religious institutions and religious dignitaries...
of Kemalist ideology aims to banish religious interference in government affairs, and vice versa; solidified in public education and government-subsidized cultural and legal affairs. It is a rationalist, anti-clerical secularism, differing from that in most predominantly Christian societies, but similar to the concept of laïcité
Laïcité
French secularism, in French, laïcité is a concept denoting the absence of religious involvement in government affairs as well as absence of government involvement in religious affairs. French secularism has a long history but the current regime is based on the 1905 French law on the Separation of...
in France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
. Many of Atatürk's reforms
Atatürk's Reforms
Atatürk's Reforms were a series of political, legal, cultural, social and economic reforms that were designed to modernize the new Republic of Turkey into a democratic and secular nation-state...
were brought forward to establish secularism, such as the establishment of a modern, secular school system. The roots of Kemalist secularism extend to the Ottoman Empire, especially the Tanzimat
Tanzimat
The Tanzimât , meaning reorganization of the Ottoman Empire, was a period of reformation that began in 1839 and ended with the First Constitutional Era in 1876. The Tanzimât reform era was characterized by various attempts to modernize the Ottoman Empire, to secure its territorial integrity against...
period and the later Second Constitutional Era
Second Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)
The Second Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire began shortly after Sultan Abdülhamid II restored the constitutional monarchy after the 1908 Young Turk Revolution. The period established many political groups...
. In that period the Ottoman parliament pursued secular policies, which was stated as the reason for the Countercoup (1909)
Countercoup (1909)
The Countercoup of 1909 was an attempt to dismantle the Second Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire and replace it with a monarchy under Sultan Abdul Hamid II...
, because, as the crowd claimed, "the state's hostility to religion became clear". The allegation of hostility to religion of the Ottoman parliament's secular policies also factored in the Arab Revolt
Arab Revolt
The Arab Revolt was initiated by the Sherif Hussein bin Ali with the aim of securing independence from the ruling Ottoman Turks and creating a single unified Arab state spanning from Aleppo in Syria to Aden in Yemen.- Background :...
during WWI.
Kemalist secularism does not imply or advocate agnosticism
Agnosticism
Agnosticism is the view that the truth value of certain claims—especially claims about the existence or non-existence of any deity, but also other religious and metaphysical claims—is unknown or unknowable....
or nihilism
Nihilism
Nihilism is the philosophical doctrine suggesting the negation of one or more putatively meaningful aspects of life. Most commonly, nihilism is presented in the form of existential nihilism which argues that life is without objective meaning, purpose, or intrinsic value...
; it means freedom of thought and independence of the institutions of the state from the dominance of religious thought and religious institutions. In neutralizing political Islam as a force Kemalism aimed at developing a pluralistic (liberal
Liberal movements within Islam
Progressive Muslims have produced a considerable body of liberal thought within Islam or "progressive Islam" ; but some consider progressive Islam and liberal Islam as two distinct movements)...
) Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
on the social front. The Kemalist principle of secularism is not against an enlightened Islam, but against an Islam opposed to and fighting modernization and democracy. The social narrative of Kemalist secularism continues into the 21st century, with a Turkish Islam
Islam in Turkey
The region secacomprising modern Turkey has a long and rich Islamic tradition stretching back to the dawn of the Seljuk period and Ottoman Empire. The country has many historical mosques present throughout the cities and towns, including many in Istanbul...
rooted in Sufism
Sufism
Sufism or ' is defined by its adherents as the inner, mystical dimension of Islam. A practitioner of this tradition is generally known as a '...
, particularly Naqshbandi
Naqshbandi
Naqshbandi is one of the major Sufi spiritual orders of Sufi Islam. It is considered to be a "Potent" order.The Naqshbandi order is over 1,300 years old, and is active today...
Sufi orders, and punctuated by frontier conditions of Turkey.
Politics and religion
The Kemalist form of separation of state and religion pursued the replacement of a complete set of institutions, interest groups (such as political parties, unions, lobby groups), the relationships between those institutions and the political norms and rules that govern their functions (constitution, election law). The biggest change in this perspective was the abolishment of the CaliphateCaliphate
The term caliphate, "dominion of a caliph " , refers to the first system of government established in Islam and represented the political unity of the Muslim Ummah...
on March 3, 1924. The removal of the Ottoman Caliphate
Ottoman Caliphate
The Ottoman Caliphate, under the Ottoman Dynasty of the Ottoman Empire inherited the responsibility of the Caliphate from the Mamluks of Egypt....
was followed by the removal of its political mechanisms. The article stating that "the established religion of Turkey is Islam" was removed from the constitution on February 5, 1937.
From a political perspective, Kemalism is an anti-clerical secularism which abolished the religious political establishment of the Ottoman Empire. In the Kemalist political perspective politicians cannot claim to be the protector of any religion or religious sect, and such claims constitute sufficient legal grounds for the permanent banning of political parties. The current Prime Minister of Turkey, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
Recep Tayyip Erdogan
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan has been Prime Minister of Turkey since 2003 and is chairman of the ruling Justice and Development Party , which holds a majority of the seats in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. Erdoğan served as Mayor of Istanbul from 1994 to 1998. He graduated in 1981 from Marmara...
, while mayor of Istanbul
Istanbul
Istanbul , historically known as Byzantium and Constantinople , is the largest city of Turkey. Istanbul metropolitan province had 13.26 million people living in it as of December, 2010, which is 18% of Turkey's population and the 3rd largest metropolitan area in Europe after London and...
, was once jailed for reciting poetry laced with aggressively religious terms, which was deemed by the judiciary to advocate separatism among the Turkish people, into camps of "believers" and "non-believers".
Controversially, the constitutional concept of laïcité is also used to justify a ban on Muslim women wearing Islamic coverings
Hijab
The word "hijab" or "'" refers to both the head covering traditionally worn by Muslim women and modest Muslim styles of dress in general....
such as headscarfs in public universities and other public buildings. Joost Lagendijk, a member of the European Parliament
Member of the European Parliament
A Member of the European Parliament is a person who has been elected to the European Parliament. The name of MEPs differ in different languages, with terms such as europarliamentarian or eurodeputy being common in Romance language-speaking areas.When the European Parliament was first established,...
and chair of the Joint Parliamentary Committee with Turkey, has publicly criticized these clothing restrictions for Muslim women; whereas the European Court of Human Rights
European Court of Human Rights
The European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg is a supra-national court established by the European Convention on Human Rights and hears complaints that a contracting state has violated the human rights enshrined in the Convention and its protocols. Complaints can be brought by individuals or...
ruled in numerous cases that such restrictions in public buildings and educational institutions do not constitute a violation of human rights.
State and religion
According to the Kemalist perception, the Turkish state is to stand at an equal distance from every religion, neither promoting nor condemning any set of religious beliefs. The Republic of Turkey is neutral in religious affairs. Kemalism has an "Active Neutrality" and actions related to religion should be carefully analyzed and evaluated by the government through the Presidency of Religious Affairs, which is responsible for managing the religious affairs and institutions in the country. The Presidency of Religious Affairs pursues the responsibility for planning, coordinating, and implementing the balance.Kemalism has to balance the space between different religious sects. Religious education, which was originally left to private initiative with after-school courses until 1980, when it was brought to secondary education with a formal curriculum covering religious doctrines. This change of politics to balance religious doctrine is debated. There are three main ideological perspectives in this debate. The first one views this change as a breach of Kemalist secularist ideology, and demands a return to the previous policy. The second perspective accepts the religious education but objects to its compulsory position. The third position accepts the compulsory position except those responsible for minority communities, who wish to have their own religious courses, within the boundaries of the regulations administered by the Ministry of Education.
Revolutionism
Revolutionism : a principle formulated by Atatürk, which means that the country should replace the traditional institutions and concepts with modern institutions and concepts. This principle advocated the need for fundamental social change through revolutionRevolution
A revolution is a fundamental change in power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively short period of time.Aristotle described two types of political revolution:...
as a strategy to achieve a modern society. The core of the revolution, in the Kemalist sense, was an accomplished fact. In Kemalist sense there is no possibility of return to the old systems which were deemed backward.
The principle of revolutionism went beyond the recognition of the reforms which were made during Atatürk's lifetime. Atatürk's revolutions in the social and political life are accepted as irreversible. Atatürk never entertained the possibility of a pause or transition phase during the course of the progressive unfolding or implementation of the revolution. The current understanding of this concept can be described as active modification. Turkey and its society, taking over institutions from the West, must add Turkish traits and patterns to them, and adapt them to the Turkish culture, according to Kemalism. The making of the Turkish traits and patterns of these reforms takes generations of cultural and social experience (which results in the collective memory of the Turkish nation).
Nationalism
Nationalism
Nationalism is a political ideology that involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a political entity defined in national terms, i.e. a nation. In the 'modernist' image of the nation, it is nationalism that creates national identity. There are various definitions for what...
: The Kemalist revolution aimed to create a nation state from the Turkish remnants of the Ottoman Empire.
Kemalist ideology defines the "Turkish People
Turkish people
Turkish people, also known as the "Turks" , are an ethnic group primarily living in Turkey and in the former lands of the Ottoman Empire where Turkish minorities had been established in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Greece, Kosovo, Macedonia, and Romania...
" as "those who protect and promote the moral, spiritual, cultural and humanistic values of the Turkish Nation." Kemalist ideology defines the "Turkish Nation" as a nation of Turkish People who always love and seek to exalt their family, country and nation, who know their duties and responsibilities towards the democratic, secular and social state governed by the rule of law, founded on human rights, and on the tenets laid down in the preamble to the constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was an Ottoman and Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, writer, and the first President of Turkey. He is credited with being the founder of the Republic of Turkey....
defines the Turkish Nation by saying "the folk which constitutes the Republic of Turkey is called the Turkish Nation."
Article 301
Article 301 (Turkish penal code)
Article 301 is a controversial article of the Turkish Penal Code making it illegal to insult Turkey, the Turkish ethnicity, or Turkish government institutions...
of the Turkish Penal code made it a crime to insult Turkishness , but under pressure of the EU, this was changed in 2008 to protect the "Turkish nation" instead of Turkish ethnicity in 2008, an 'imagined' nationhood of people living within the National Pact
Misak-i Millî
Misak-ı Millî is the set of six important decisions made by the last term of the Ottoman Parliament. Parliament met on 28 January 1920 and published their decisions on 12 February 1920...
borders.
Kemalist nationalism is an extension of the Kemalist modernization movement. It was brought against the political domination of sheikhs, tribal leaders and Islamism
Islamism
Islamism also , lit., "Political Islam" is set of ideologies holding that Islam is not only a religion but also a political system. Islamism is a controversial term, and definitions of it sometimes vary...
(Islam as a political system). Initially the declaration of the republic was perceived as "Returning to the days of the first caliphs". However, Kemalist nationalism aimed to shift the political legitimacy from autocracy
Autocracy
An autocracy is a form of government in which one person is the supreme power within the state. It is derived from the Greek : and , and may be translated as "one who rules by himself". It is distinct from oligarchy and democracy...
(Ottoman Dynasty), theocracy
Theocracy
Theocracy is a form of organization in which the official policy is to be governed by immediate divine guidance or by officials who are regarded as divinely guided, or simply pursuant to the doctrine of a particular religious sect or religion....
(Caliphate) and feudalism
Feudalism
Feudalism was a set of legal and military customs in medieval Europe that flourished between the 9th and 15th centuries, which, broadly defined, was a system for ordering society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labour.Although derived from the...
(tribal leaders) to the active participation of its citizenry, the Turks. Active participation, or the "will of the people", was established with the republican regime and Turkishness rather than other forms of affiliations that were promoted. The shift in affiliation was symbolized with:
The term "Ne mutlu Türküm diyene" was promoted against the "long live the Sultan," "long live the Sheikh" or "long live the Caliph." Kemalist nationalism originates from the social contract
Social contract
The social contract is an intellectual device intended to explain the appropriate relationship between individuals and their governments. Social contract arguments assert that individuals unite into political societies by a process of mutual consent, agreeing to abide by common rules and accept...
theories, especially from the principles advocated by Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of 18th-century Romanticism. His political philosophy influenced the French Revolution as well as the overall development of modern political, sociological and educational thought.His novel Émile: or, On Education is a treatise...
and his Social Contract
Social Contract (Rousseau)
Of The Social Contract, Or Principles of Political Right by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, is the book in which Rousseau theorized about the best way in which to set up a political community in the face of the problems of commercial society which he had already identified in his Discourse on Inequality...
. The Kemalist perception of social contract was effected by the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
The Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire included the watershed events of the Young Turk Revolution and the establishment of the Second Constitutional Era, and ended with the Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire by the victorious sides of World War I.- Establishment of the Second Constitutional Era, 24...
which was perceived as a product of failure of the Ottoman "Millet
Millet (Ottoman Empire)
Millet is a term for the confessional communities in the Ottoman Empire. It refers to the separate legal courts pertaining to "personal law" under which communities were allowed to rule themselves under their own system...
" system and the ineffective experimentation with Ottomanism
Ottomanism
Ottomanism was a concept which developed prior to the First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire. Its proponents believed that it could solve the social issues that the empire was facing. Ottomanism was highly affected by thinkers such as Montesquieu and Rousseau and the French Revolution. It...
. Kemalist nationalism, after experiencing the Ottoman Empire's breakdown into pieces, defined the social contract as its "highest ideal".
Kemalist nationalism's social content does not accept any adjectives placed before the definition of a nation [a nation of ...]; denounces the types of national unity based on racial, religious
Religion
Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that establishes symbols that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values. Many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to...
, totalitarian and fascist ideologies, by claiming:
Regarding expansionism, Kemalist nationalism opposes imperialism
Imperialism
Imperialism, as defined by Dictionary of Human Geography, is "the creation and/or maintenance of an unequal economic, cultural, and territorial relationships, usually between states and often in the form of an empire, based on domination and subordination." The imperialism of the last 500 years,...
and aims to promote "peace" in both the domestic and the international arenas.
Criteria for nationality
Kemalist criteria for national identity or simply being a Turk refers to a shared languageLanguage
Language may refer either to the specifically human capacity for acquiring and using complex systems of communication, or to a specific instance of such a system of complex communication...
, and/or shared values defined as a common history, and the will to share a future. Membership is usually gained through birth within the borders of the state and also the principle of jus sanguinis
Jus sanguinis
Ius sanguinis is a social policy by which citizenship is not determined by place of birth, but by having a parent who are citizens of the nation...
. Kemalist form of nationality is integrated to the Article 66 of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Every citizen is recognized as a Turk, regardless of ethnicity, belief, and gender, etc. Turkish nationality law
Turkish nationality law
Turkish nationality law is based primarily on the principle of jus sanguinis. Children who are born to a Turkish mother and a Turkish father in Turkey are Turkish citizens from birth....
states that he or she can be deprived of his/her nationality only through an act of treason.
Extent of nationality
Kemalist nationalism believes in the principle that the Turkish state is an indivisible whole comprising its territory and people, which is defined as the "unity of the state". It was a nationalism which did respect the right to independence of all other nations.Kemalism had not only displaced "Pan-Turkism
Pan-Turkism
Pan-Turkism is a nationalist movement that emerged in 1880s among the Turkic intellectuals of the Russian Empire, with the aim of cultural and political unification of all Turkic peoples.-Name:...
" as the official state ideology; it also focused on the nation-state's narrower interests, renouncing the concern for the "Outside Turks". Pan-Turkism was an ethnocentric ideology [to unite all ethnically Turkic nations] while Kemalism is polycentric [united under a " common will"] in character. Kemalism wants to have an equal footing among the mainstream world civilizations. Pan-Turkists have consistently emphasized the special attributes of the Turkic people, and wanted to unite all of the Turkic people. Kemalism wants an equal footing (based on respect) and does not aim to unite the people of Turkey with all the other Turkic nations. The Kemalists were not interested in Pan-Turkism and from 1923 to 1950 (the single state period) reacted with particular firmness.
Kemalism had not only displaced "Turanism
Turanism
Turanism, or Pan-Turanism, is a political movement for the union of all Turanian peoples. It implies not merely the unity of all Turkic peoples , but also the unification of a wider Turanid "race", also known as the controversial Uralo-Altaic "race," believed to include all peoples speaking...
" as the official state ideology; it also focused on the Turkish People, within the alive and historical cultures and peoples of Anatolia
Anatolia
Anatolia is a geographic and historical term denoting the westernmost protrusion of Asia, comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey...
[an Anatolian-centered view]. Turanism centered the nation as the union of all Turanian peoples (Tungus, Hungarians, Finns, Estonians
Estonians
Estonians are a Finnic people closely related to the Finns and inhabiting, primarily, the country of Estonia. They speak a Finnic language known as Estonian...
, and Ryukyuans
Ryukyuans
The are the indigenous peoples of the Ryukyu Islands between the islands of Kyūshū and Taiwan. The generally recognized subgroups of Ryukyuans are Amamians, Okinawans, Miyakoans, Yaeyamans, and Yonagunians. Geographically, they live in either Okinawa Prefecture or Kagoshima Prefecture...
) stretching from the Altai Mountains in Eastern Asia to the Bosphorus. Kemalism had a narrower definition of language which wanted to remove [purify] the Persian, Arabic, Greek, Latin, etc. words from the language used in Anatolia. Turanian leaders, such as Enver Pasha, wanted an evolving language common to all Turanian peoples, minimizing differences and maximizing similarities between them.
Statism
StatismStatism
Statism is a term usually describing a political philosophy, whether of the right or the left, that emphasises the role of the state in politics or supports the use of the state to achieve economic, military or social goals...
: Kemal Atatürk made clear in his statements and policies that Turkey's complete modernization
Modernization
In the social sciences, modernization or modernisation refers to a model of an evolutionary transition from a 'pre-modern' or 'traditional' to a 'modern' society. The teleology of modernization is described in social evolutionism theories, existing as a template that has been generally followed by...
was very much dependent on economic and technological development. The principle of Kemalist Statism is generally interpreted to mean that the state was to regulate the country's general economic activities and the state was to engage in areas where private enterprise was not willing to do so, or where private enterprise had proven to be inadequate, or if national interest required it. In the application of the principle of statism, however, the state emerged not only as the principal source of economic activity, but also as the owner of the major industries of the country.
History
The history of the concept of Kemalism can be traced back to the Second Constitutional EraSecond Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)
The Second Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire began shortly after Sultan Abdülhamid II restored the constitutional monarchy after the 1908 Young Turk Revolution. The period established many political groups...
of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
. The political experience of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
, through Tanzimat
Tanzimat
The Tanzimât , meaning reorganization of the Ottoman Empire, was a period of reformation that began in 1839 and ended with the First Constitutional Era in 1876. The Tanzimât reform era was characterized by various attempts to modernize the Ottoman Empire, to secure its territorial integrity against...
, and the First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire
First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)
The First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire was the period of constitutional monarchy from the promulgation of the Kanûn-ı Esâsî , written by members of the Young Ottomans, on 23 November 1876 until 13 February 1878...
were synthesized into Kemalism.
The Republican People's Party
Republican People's Party (Turkey)
The Republican People's Party is a centre-left Kemalist political party in Turkey. It is the oldest political party of Turkey and is currently Main Opposition in the Grand National Assembly. The Republican People's Party describes itself as "a modern social-democratic party, which is faithful to...
was established by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk on September 9, 1923, not long before the declaration of the Republic of Turkey on October 29. The party uses the ideology to symbolize itself.
Jung and Piccoli state that "the Kemalists incorporated certain elements of cultural Pan-Turkism
Pan-Turkism
Pan-Turkism is a nationalist movement that emerged in 1880s among the Turkic intellectuals of the Russian Empire, with the aim of cultural and political unification of all Turkic peoples.-Name:...
in order to construct a new, and cohesive nationalist ideology". On the other hand, according to Don Peretz, Turkish nationalism has been free from racism.
Tocci asserts that "Religion was viewed as a potential threat to the Kemalist nation-state", and therefore "the state actively attempted to reduce the role played by religion in private lives." In constructing an identity based on the Western model, the new Turkish state provided laïcité
Laïcité
French secularism, in French, laïcité is a concept denoting the absence of religious involvement in government affairs as well as absence of government involvement in religious affairs. French secularism has a long history but the current regime is based on the 1905 French law on the Separation of...
on its citizens.