Judith (poem)
Encyclopedia
The Old English poem "Judith" describes the beheading of Assyrian general Holofernes
by Israelite Judith of Bethulia
. Various other versions of the Holofernes-Judith tale exist. These include the Book of Judith, still present in the Roman Catholic Bible, and Abbot Ælfric's
homily
of the tale. The story is considered to have stood as an inspiration during multiple times of war.
The manuscript is 348 lines long and it features the numbers X, XI,and XII. The numbers correspond to the 10th verse of chapter twelve, the 11th verse of chapter thirteen, and the 12th verse of chapter fourteen. Only the last three out of twelve cantos have been preserved. What remains of the poem opens in the middle of a banquet. Had the first nine cantos been preserved, it is often thought that Judith would be considered one of the most laudable Old English works (Cook, pg. lxxvi-lxxvii).
What is certain about the origin of the poem is that it stems from the Book of Judith. After the [Protestant Reformation|Reformation], the Book of Judith was removed from the Protestant Bible. However, it is still present in the Roman Catholic Bible. Many discrepancies exist between the poem and Book, most notably in regards to the portrayal of Holofernes and the exaggeration of Judith’s righteousness in the poem. The poet alleviates Judith from her role as a seductress, as portrayed in the book. It is the monstrous Holofernes who plays the active role in attempting to entice Judith into his bedroom (Marsden, pg. 147).
Opposite of Judith’s portrayal in the Book of Judith, her character is rendered blameless and virtuous. In line 109, Judith is referred to as an ides ellenrof, which translates as brave woman. The author also gives her the entitlement of a halige meowle (line 56), which translates as holy woman, and a snoteran idese (line 55), which translates as wise woman. Although Judith commits murder in the poem, she is constantly doused with a saintly light.
Holofernes adopts the archetypical monstrous image, further pulling any convictions of wrongdoing away from Judith. In the Book of Judith, Holofernes is depicted as a babbling drunkard. However, the poet renders him a representation of evil. And thus, in carrying out her plan to kill him, Judith becomes a hero.
Portraying the epitome of Germanic heroism, Judith, was likely composed during a time of war as a model for the people. The Abbot Ælfric similarly created his own homiletic interpretation of the Book of Judith. At the time of his creation, Vikings were ransacking England. Ælfric professed that Judith was to serve as an example to the people. In a letter, Ælfric wrote: “þeo is eac on English on ure wisan iset eow mannum to bisne, þet ge eower eard mid wæpnum beweriæn wið onwinnende here.” Translated into modern English, the phrase reads: “It is also set as an example for you in English according to our style, so that you will defend your land with weapons against an attacking force” (Nelson, pg. 47).
Ælfric’s Judith is quite similar to that of the poem; and furthermore, the characters seem to have served the same purpose—to stand as an example to the people in a time of war. Judith’s city of Bethulia was being plundered by Assyrians. Holofernes was an Assyrian general and king, often drunk and constantly monstrous.
Judith hatched a plan to save the Israelites and Bethulia. As Holofernes was often drunk, Judith anticipated that he would attempt to seduce her. She pretended to be charmed by Holofernes, allowing herself to be taken to his bedroom. When the unsuspecting Holofernes fell into a drunken slumber, Judith severed his head with a sword. Thereafter, she proudly displayed his head to her Hebrew army and led them into a victorious battle against the Assyrians. In the Book of Judith, though, the Assyrians simply fled Bethulia after discovering the deceased body of Holofernes (Marsden, pg. 148).
fire of 1731 and readings have been lost. In order to account for these lost words, modern editions of the poem are supplemented by references to Edward Thwaites'
1698 edition. The only existing copy of the poem follows the Beowulf manuscript.
, though several opposing theories have been proposed. The atypical absence of Cynewulf’s runic signature has led many not to attribute authorship to him (Nelson, pg. 4). Stylistically, the poem so strongly reflects the Cynewulfian school that it may just as likely been written by one of Cynewulf’s successors (Cook, pg. xx-xxi). The poem is also commonly thought to be the work to Cædmon
, which would place it around 680 A.D. (Cook, pg. xvi). However, many other scholars believe the poem to have been written during various years between the eight and tenth centuries. The existing manuscript of "Judith," following the "Beowulf" manuscript, was copied by the second of two scribes.
Holofernes
In the deuterocanonical Book of Judith Holofernes was an invading general of Nebuchadnezzar. Nebuchadnezzar dispatched Holofernes to take vengeance on the nations of the west that had withheld their assistance to his reign...
by Israelite Judith of Bethulia
Bethulia
Bethulia Bethulia Bethulia (Hebrew: בתוליה; in Greek Betuloua, is a Biblical city whose deliverance by Judith, when besieged by Holofernes, forms the subject of the Book of Judith....
. Various other versions of the Holofernes-Judith tale exist. These include the Book of Judith, still present in the Roman Catholic Bible, and Abbot Ælfric's
Ælfric of Eynsham
Ælfric of Eynsham was an English abbot, as well as a consummate, prolific writer in Old English of hagiography, homilies, biblical commentaries, and other genres. He is also known variously as Ælfric the Grammarian , Ælfric of Cerne, and Ælfric the Homilist...
homily
Judith (homily)
Judith is a homily written by abbot Ælfric of Eynsham around the year 1000. It is extant in two manuscripts, a fairly complete version being found in Corpus Christi College Cambridge MS 303, and fragments in British Library MS Cotton Otho B.x, which came from the Cotton Library.The homily is...
of the tale. The story is considered to have stood as an inspiration during multiple times of war.
History and incompleteness
Judith was first discovered as an appendage to the Beowulf manuscript from the early eleventh century. Though it is certain that the poem is a derivative of the Book of Judith, still present in the Roman Catholic Bible, its authorship and year of origin remain a mystery. While the poem is incomplete, it has been of great cultural value since its creation.The manuscript is 348 lines long and it features the numbers X, XI,and XII. The numbers correspond to the 10th verse of chapter twelve, the 11th verse of chapter thirteen, and the 12th verse of chapter fourteen. Only the last three out of twelve cantos have been preserved. What remains of the poem opens in the middle of a banquet. Had the first nine cantos been preserved, it is often thought that Judith would be considered one of the most laudable Old English works (Cook, pg. lxxvi-lxxvii).
What is certain about the origin of the poem is that it stems from the Book of Judith. After the [Protestant Reformation|Reformation], the Book of Judith was removed from the Protestant Bible. However, it is still present in the Roman Catholic Bible. Many discrepancies exist between the poem and Book, most notably in regards to the portrayal of Holofernes and the exaggeration of Judith’s righteousness in the poem. The poet alleviates Judith from her role as a seductress, as portrayed in the book. It is the monstrous Holofernes who plays the active role in attempting to entice Judith into his bedroom (Marsden, pg. 147).
Plot, structure and themes
Similar to Beowulf, Judith conveys a moral tale of heroic triumph over monstrous beings. Both moral and political, the poem tells of a brave woman’s efforts to save and protect her people. Judith is depicted as an exemplar woman, grounded by ideal morale, probity, courage, and religious conviction.Opposite of Judith’s portrayal in the Book of Judith, her character is rendered blameless and virtuous. In line 109, Judith is referred to as an ides ellenrof, which translates as brave woman. The author also gives her the entitlement of a halige meowle (line 56), which translates as holy woman, and a snoteran idese (line 55), which translates as wise woman. Although Judith commits murder in the poem, she is constantly doused with a saintly light.
Holofernes adopts the archetypical monstrous image, further pulling any convictions of wrongdoing away from Judith. In the Book of Judith, Holofernes is depicted as a babbling drunkard. However, the poet renders him a representation of evil. And thus, in carrying out her plan to kill him, Judith becomes a hero.
Portraying the epitome of Germanic heroism, Judith, was likely composed during a time of war as a model for the people. The Abbot Ælfric similarly created his own homiletic interpretation of the Book of Judith. At the time of his creation, Vikings were ransacking England. Ælfric professed that Judith was to serve as an example to the people. In a letter, Ælfric wrote: “þeo is eac on English on ure wisan iset eow mannum to bisne, þet ge eower eard mid wæpnum beweriæn wið onwinnende here.” Translated into modern English, the phrase reads: “It is also set as an example for you in English according to our style, so that you will defend your land with weapons against an attacking force” (Nelson, pg. 47).
Ælfric’s Judith is quite similar to that of the poem; and furthermore, the characters seem to have served the same purpose—to stand as an example to the people in a time of war. Judith’s city of Bethulia was being plundered by Assyrians. Holofernes was an Assyrian general and king, often drunk and constantly monstrous.
Judith hatched a plan to save the Israelites and Bethulia. As Holofernes was often drunk, Judith anticipated that he would attempt to seduce her. She pretended to be charmed by Holofernes, allowing herself to be taken to his bedroom. When the unsuspecting Holofernes fell into a drunken slumber, Judith severed his head with a sword. Thereafter, she proudly displayed his head to her Hebrew army and led them into a victorious battle against the Assyrians. In the Book of Judith, though, the Assyrians simply fled Bethulia after discovering the deceased body of Holofernes (Marsden, pg. 148).
Destruction and preservation
Damage to the manuscript was caused by the CottonCotton library
The Cotton or Cottonian library was collected privately by Sir Robert Bruce Cotton M.P. , an antiquarian and bibliophile, and was the basis of the British Library...
fire of 1731 and readings have been lost. In order to account for these lost words, modern editions of the poem are supplemented by references to Edward Thwaites'
Edward Thwaites
Edward Thwaites was an English scholar of the Anglo-Saxon language. According to David C. Douglas he was "one of the most inspiring teachers which Oxford has ever produced".-Life:...
1698 edition. The only existing copy of the poem follows the Beowulf manuscript.
Authorship and date
The consensus held by modern scholars allocates Judith to the authorship of CynewulfCynewulf
Cynewulf is one of twelve Anglo-Saxon poets known by name today, and one of four whose work survives today. He is famous for his religious compositions, and is regarded as one of the pre-eminent figures of Old English Christian poetry. Posterity knows of his name by means of runic signatures that...
, though several opposing theories have been proposed. The atypical absence of Cynewulf’s runic signature has led many not to attribute authorship to him (Nelson, pg. 4). Stylistically, the poem so strongly reflects the Cynewulfian school that it may just as likely been written by one of Cynewulf’s successors (Cook, pg. xx-xxi). The poem is also commonly thought to be the work to Cædmon
Cædmon
Cædmon is the earliest English poet whose name is known. An Anglo-Saxon who cared for the animals and was attached to the double monastery of Streonæshalch during the abbacy of St. Hilda , he was originally ignorant of "the art of song" but learned to compose one night in the course of a dream,...
, which would place it around 680 A.D. (Cook, pg. xvi). However, many other scholars believe the poem to have been written during various years between the eight and tenth centuries. The existing manuscript of "Judith," following the "Beowulf" manuscript, was copied by the second of two scribes.
Works cited
- Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England, ed. Michael Lapidge (1991).
- Catholic Encyclopedia: “Book of Judith”Available: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08554a.htm
- Kennedy, Charles W. Early English Christian Poetry. New York: Oxford University Press, 1961.
- Medieval England: an Encyclopedia / editors: Paul E. Szarmach, M. Teresa Tavormina, Joel T. Rosenthal. New York: Garland Pub., 1998.
- Savelli, Mary. Judith: a prose translation. The United States Chapter of Þa Engliscan Gesiðas, 1997.
- Smyth, Mary. “The Numbers in the Manuscript of the Old English Judith” Modern Language Notes, Vol. 20, No. 7. (Nov. 1905), pp. 197–199.
- Woolf, R. E. “The Lost Opening to Judith” The Modern Language Review, Vol. 50, No. 2 (Apr. 1955), pp. 168–172.
External links
- Judith in Old English
- A translation of the poem into Modern English.