John Russell, 1st Earl Russell
Encyclopedia
John Russell, 1st Earl Russell, KG
, GCMG
, PC
(18 August 1792 – 28 May 1878), known as Lord John Russell before 1861, was an English
Whig
and Liberal
politician who served twice as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
in the mid-19th century.
had been one of the principal Whig dynasties in England since the 17th century, and were among the richest handful of aristocratic landowning families in the country, but as a younger son of the 6th Duke of Bedford
he was not in line to inherit the family estates. As a younger son, he bore the courtesy title "Lord John Russell", but as he was not a peer in his own right he was entitled to sit in the House of Commons.
He was educated at Westminster School
and the University of Edinburgh
, which he attended for ten years but did not take a degree.
's government, Russell entered the government as Paymaster of the Forces
, and was soon elevated to the Cabinet. He was one of the principal leaders of the fight for the Reform Act 1832
, earning the nickname Finality Jack from his complacency pronouncing the Act a final measure. In 1834, when the leader of the Commons, Lord Althorp
, succeeded to the peerage as Earl Spencer
, Russell became the leader of the Whigs in the Commons, a position he maintained for the rest of the decade, until the Whigs fell from power in 1841. In this position, Russell continued to lead the more reformist wing of the Whig party, calling, in particular, for religious freedom, and, as Home Secretary in the late 1830s, played a large role in democratizing the government of British cities (other than London
). During his career in Parliament, Lord John Russell represented the City of London.
In 1845, as leader of the Opposition
, Russell came out in favour of repeal of the Corn Laws
, forcing Conservative
Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel
to follow him. When the Conservatives split the next year over this issue, the Whigs returned to power and Russell became Prime Minister
. Russell's premiership was frustrating, and, due to party disunity and infighting, he was unable to secure the passage of many of the measures he was interested in passing
Russell's first government coincided with the Great Irish Famine of the late 1840s. Russell's government also saw conflict with his headstrong Foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston, whose belligerence and support for continental revolution he found embarrassing. When, without royal approval, Palmerston recognized Napoleon III
's coup of 2 December 1851, Palmerston was forced to resign. In February of
1852, however, Palmerston had his revenge on John Russell by voting with the Opposition on a vote of "no confidence" to bring down the Russell government.
The government introduced a militia bill in the House of Commons. The vote on the mhad been militia bill was made a "vote of confidence" on the government. Palmerston succeeded in introducing an amendment to the militia bill which passed by eleven (11) votes.
Thus the majority vote in favour of the amendment to the militia bill caused the downfall of Russell's ministry, which occurred on February 21, 1852. Palmerston's amendment, thus, brought down the Russell government. This was Palmerston's famous "tit for tat" with Johnny Russell"--revenge for his dismissal by Russell as Foreign Minister.
in June 1846. The Corn Laws had imposed a tariff on all cheap imported wheat and, thus, kept the price of wheat and the bread made from wheat high. This served the interests of landed aristocracy which was the main body of support for the Conservative Party. However, the high price of wheat and bread added greatly to the desperation of poor and hungry in England and Ireland.
There were also 113 members of the new Parliament who were "Free Traders." The Free Traders, were more radical than the Peelites. They felt that the tariffs on all imported consumer goods should be removed, not just the tariff on wheat or "corn."
There were also 63 members of the "Irish Brigade" elected to the new Parliament. The Irish Brigade was made up Irish members interested in the Tenant Rights legislation for the protection of the tenant farmers in Ireland.
None of these minor groups were interested in forming a government with the Conservatives because of the bitterness left over from the repeal of the Corn Laws. However, John Russell of the Whigs could not attract enough of the minor party members to form a government either. Other issues handled during the recent Russell government had alienated these three minor groups from the Whigs also. Thus, Queen Victoria asked the Earl of Derby
to form a minority government.
However the minority Conservative government under the Earl of Derby
was short lived and in December 1852, the Derby minority fell in another "no confidence vote."
. Russell continued to serve as Leader of the Whig Party in the House of Commons. As the leader of the largest party in the Aberdeen coalition government, Russell was needed in the new government. Accordingly, on December 28, 1852, Russell was appointed Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs
.
. They did so as a member of the Aberdeen government and against the wishes of the cautious, Russophile Earl of Aberdeen. The Ottoman Empire
was in a state of decline and several nations in Europe sought to take advantage of that decline. The Russian Empire
in particular sought to assert its terrtorial claims to southeastern Europe or the Balkans at the expense of Ottoman territory in Europe. However, just as soon as Louis Bonaparte had completed his coup against the Second Republic of France and assumed the title Napoleon III Emperor of France, he sent an ambassador to the Ottoman Empire with instructions to obtain from the Ottomans, a guarantee that France was to be the exclusive "protector of Christian sites" in Jerusalem and the Holy Land
. Louis Bonaparte was the nephew of Napoleon I, Emperor of France, and many British public officials - like Aberdeen - felt that Louis Bonaparte was merely seeking foreign adventure and aggrandizement and would sooner or later involve Britain in another series of wars like those wars against France and Napoleon
from 1793 to 1815. France had long been seen as an opponent of British interests, and that perception had not changed since 1815. Accordingly, much of the British public sided with Russia or wished to remain neutral in this dispute between Russia and France over the future of the Ottoman Empire which was now being called the "Eastern Question
." However, as time passed, British public opinion would alter. The British government was worried about the outcome of the rising tensions over Eastern Question. Accordingly, Aberdeen sent, Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, a diplomat of considerable experience, to the Ottoman Empire, to oversee British interests.
When the Ottomans gave way to Louis Bonaparte's demands, Russia strongly objected and on May 7, 1853 one of Russia's leading statesmen, Prince Alexander Sergeyevich Menshikov
, arrived in Turkey to work out an agreement. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774, Russia had occupied the Turkish/Ottoman-controlled provinces of Wallachia
and Moldavia
. Under the Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarva signed in 1774, Russia had given these Danubian provinces back to Turkey (the Ottoman Empire) in exchange for Turkish recognition of Russia's exclusive right to "protect the Chistian sites in Jerusalem and the Holy Land." Menshikov worked out an agreement with Turkey and the Turks reversed themselves and agreed to the Russian agreement.
Lord John Russell, Palmerston and other public officials and an increasing number of the British public were beginning to see that the expansion of Russia was beginning to threaten British interests in India and British trade with Persia. They felt that an agreement with France and cooperation with the French on the Eastern Question was necessary to forestall Russian threats to British interests. Accordingly, they were willing to work with France even as France sent the French ship-of-the-line, Charlemagne to the Black Sea, in the spring of 1852, as a show of force against the Russians. In the face of the French show of force, the Ottomans, turned to Lord Stratford de Redcliffe for advice on the matter. Lord Stratford of Redcliffe was later accused of persuading the Ottomans to reject the Russian agreement. Accordingly, the Turks reversed themselves and signed a treaty acknowledging the French and the Vatican as the official protectors of the Christian sites in the Holy Land. The Russians responded by deploying the 4th and 5th Army Corps along the River Danube
. Additionally, the Russians began to court British political opinion. However, by this time it was too late. Public opinion in Britain had begun to shift toward sympathy for Turkey. Still the Aberdeen government resisted active pursuit of the war. Lord Russell became frustrated with the lack of support for Turkey shown by the British governemt. After pledging himself to the integrity and independence of Turkey, Russell resigned from the government on February 21, 1853. Aberdeen replaced Lord Russell, as Secretary of State for Foreign Afairs in his government with Lord Clarendon
.
Finally in May 1853, Aberdeen was forced to make a show of force, by sending a fleet under Admiral Armar Lowry Corry
stationed in the Bay of Biscay to the island of Malta to join up with a squadron under Admiral Sir James Whitley Deans Dundas
. The combined force was sent to join the French fleet at Salamis Island
near Athens, Greece. The combined Anglo-French fleet, then, sailed to a location off the coast of Turkey.
and Silistra
.
The Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia on October 23, 1853. The Russian fleet defeated the Turkish fleet at the Battle of Sinope on November 30, 1853. After Russia had ignored the Anglo-French ultimatum, both France and Britain declared war on Russia on March 28, 1854.
In September 1854, British, French and Turkish troops landed on the Crimean Peninsula and set siege to the Russian fortress of Sevastopol
. On October 25, 1854 the battle of Balaklava including the famous or infamous "charge of the light brigade," was fought. On November 5, 1854, the allied victory over the Russian troops at the battle of Inkermann broke the Russian will to defeat the allied troops in the field and reduced the outcome of the war to the outcome of the siege of Sevastopol
. Members of Parliament began to have doubts about the misconduct of the war. Lord Russell, too began to be concerned about the have reservations about the conduct of the war and eventually, Lord Russell resigned his position within the government.
A motion in Parliament by John Arthur Roebuck
on January 29, 1855 called for an investigation into the conduct of the war by the government and, especially, an investigation of the conduct of the war by Duke of Newcastle—the Secretary for War. The motion passed the House of Commons by the large vote of 305 in favor and 148 against. to investigate the government became a vote of confidence in the Aberdeen government and in the Secretary for War. Accordingly, when the Robuck motion passed, Aberdeen treated the vote as a vote of "no confidence" on his government and resigned.
Upon the resignation of the Earl of Aberdeen, Lord Palmerston was asked formed a new government. John Russell was sent to Vienna to negotiate(accepting the Colonial Office) but sacrificed himself to protect negotiation confidentiality, and temporarily retired from politics in 1855, focusing on writing.
Cabinet. This period was a particularly eventful one in the world outside Britain, seeing the Unification of Italy, the American Civil War
, and the 1864 war over Schleswig-Holstein
between Denmark and the German states. His tenure of the Foreign Office was noteworthy for the famous dispatch in which he defended Italian independence: "Her Majesty's Government will turn their eyes rather to the gratifying prospect of a people building up the edifice of their liberties, and consolidating the work of their independence, amid the sympathies and good wishes of Europe" (27 October 1860).
, of Kingston Russell
in the County of Dorset
, and Viscount Amberley, of Amberley
in the County of Gloucester and of Ardsalla in the County of Meath
, and in 1861. As a peer in his own right, he sat in the House of Lords for the remainder of his career.
. His second premiership was short and frustrating, and Russell failed in his great ambition of expanding the franchise - a task that would be left to his Conservative successors, Derby and Benjamin Disraeli. In 1866, party disunity again brought down his government, and Russell went into permanent retirement.
and the widow of Thomas Lister, 2nd Baron Ribblesdale, who had died in 1832. Her death in 1838 cut the marriage short after three years. They had two daughters, Lady Georgiana Adelaide Russell (1836–1922), who married Archibald Peel and had a daughter, Grace (1878–1973); and Lady Victoria Russell (1838–1880), who married the Rev. Henry Montagu Villiers, son of Henry Montagu Villiers, Bishop of Durham
, and left many descendants.
On 20 July 1841 Russell married secondly Lady Frances Anna-Maria Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, daughter of Gilbert Elliot, 2nd Earl of Minto. Their children were John Russell, Viscount Amberley
(1842–1876), George Gilbert William Russell (1848–1933); Francis Albert Rollo Russell (1849–1914) and Mary Augusta Russell (1853–1933). They lived at Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park
.
After the death in 1876 of his eldest son, Lord Amberley, Russell and his second wife thereafter brought up his son's children, including Bertrand Russell
(1872–1970), who afterwards became a mathematician, philosopher, campaigner against nuclear weapons, and the third Earl Russell.
, and was thus the last true Whig to serve as Prime Minister. He may have served as Anthony Trollope
's model for the character of Plantagenet Palliser
. An ideal statesman, said Trollope, should have "unblemished, unextinguishable, inexhaustible love of country...But he should also be scrupulous, and, as being scrupulous, weak."
The 1832 Reform Act and the democratisation of the government of British cities are partly attributed to his efforts.
He also worked for emancipation, leading the attack on the Test
and Corporation acts
, which were repealed in 1828, as well as towards legislation limiting working hours in factories in the 1847 Factory Act, and the Public Health Act of 1848.
His government's approach to dealing with the Irish Potato Famine is now widely condemned as counterproductive, ill-informed and disastrous; however, it has been argued that Russell himself (a "Foxite
" populist) was sympathetic to the plight of the Irish poor, and that many of his relief proposals were blocked by his cabinet or by the British Parliament.
Between 1853 and 1856, he edited the Memoirs, Journal and Correspondence of Thomas Moore, which was published by Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans over 8 volumes.
A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens was dedicated to Lord John Russell "In remembrance of many public services and private kindnesses."
Order of the Garter
The Most Noble Order of the Garter, founded in 1348, is the highest order of chivalry, or knighthood, existing in England. The order is dedicated to the image and arms of St...
, GCMG
Order of St Michael and St George
The Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George is an order of chivalry founded on 28 April 1818 by George, Prince Regent, later George IV of the United Kingdom, while he was acting as Prince Regent for his father, George III....
, PC
Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council, usually known simply as the Privy Council, is a formal body of advisers to the Sovereign in the United Kingdom...
(18 August 1792 – 28 May 1878), known as Lord John Russell before 1861, was an English
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
Whig
British Whig Party
The Whigs were a party in the Parliament of England, Parliament of Great Britain, and Parliament of the United Kingdom, who contested power with the rival Tories from the 1680s to the 1850s. The Whigs' origin lay in constitutional monarchism and opposition to absolute rule...
and Liberal
Liberal Party (UK)
The Liberal Party was one of the two major political parties of the United Kingdom during the 19th and early 20th centuries. It was a third party of negligible importance throughout the latter half of the 20th Century, before merging with the Social Democratic Party in 1988 to form the present day...
politician who served twice as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the Head of Her Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom. The Prime Minister and Cabinet are collectively accountable for their policies and actions to the Sovereign, to Parliament, to their political party and...
in the mid-19th century.
Background and education
Russell was born into the highest echelons of the British aristocracy. The Russell familyDuke of Bedford
thumb|right|240px|William Russell, 1st Duke of BedfordDuke of Bedford is a title that has been created five times in the Peerage of England. The first creation came in 1414 in favour of Henry IV's third son, John, who later served as regent of France. He was made Earl of Kendal at the same time...
had been one of the principal Whig dynasties in England since the 17th century, and were among the richest handful of aristocratic landowning families in the country, but as a younger son of the 6th Duke of Bedford
John Russell, 6th Duke of Bedford
John Russell, 6th Duke of Bedford KG, PC, LLD, FSA , known as Lord John Russell until 1802, was a British Whig politician and notably served as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in the Ministry of All the Talents...
he was not in line to inherit the family estates. As a younger son, he bore the courtesy title "Lord John Russell", but as he was not a peer in his own right he was entitled to sit in the House of Commons.
He was educated at Westminster School
Westminster School
The Royal College of St. Peter in Westminster, almost always known as Westminster School, is one of Britain's leading independent schools, with the highest Oxford and Cambridge acceptance rate of any secondary school or college in Britain...
and the University of Edinburgh
University of Edinburgh
The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1583, is a public research university located in Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The university is deeply embedded in the fabric of the city, with many of the buildings in the historic Old Town belonging to the university...
, which he attended for ten years but did not take a degree.
Public life
Russell entered the House of Commons as a Whig in 1813. In 1819, Russell embraced the cause of parliamentary reform, and led the more reformist wing of the Whigs throughout the 1820s. When the Whigs came to power in 1830 in Earl GreyCharles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey
Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey, KG, PC , known as Viscount Howick between 1806 and 1807, was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 22 November 1830 to 16 July 1834. A member of the Whig Party, he backed significant reform of the British government and was among the...
's government, Russell entered the government as Paymaster of the Forces
Paymaster of the Forces
The Paymaster of the Forces was a position in the British government. The office, which was established 1661 after the Restoration, was responsible for part of the financing of the British Army. The first to hold the office was Sir Stephen Fox. Before his time it had been the custom to appoint...
, and was soon elevated to the Cabinet. He was one of the principal leaders of the fight for the Reform Act 1832
Reform Act 1832
The Representation of the People Act 1832 was an Act of Parliament that introduced wide-ranging changes to the electoral system of England and Wales...
, earning the nickname Finality Jack from his complacency pronouncing the Act a final measure. In 1834, when the leader of the Commons, Lord Althorp
John Spencer, 3rd Earl Spencer
John Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl Spencer PC, FRS , styled Viscount Althorp from 1783 to 1834, was a British statesman...
, succeeded to the peerage as Earl Spencer
Earl Spencer
Earl Spencer is a title in the Peerage of Great Britain that was created on 1 November 1765, along with the title Viscount Althorp, of Althorp in the County of Northamptonshire, for John Spencer, 1st Viscount Spencer, a great-grandson of the 1st Duke of Marlborough...
, Russell became the leader of the Whigs in the Commons, a position he maintained for the rest of the decade, until the Whigs fell from power in 1841. In this position, Russell continued to lead the more reformist wing of the Whig party, calling, in particular, for religious freedom, and, as Home Secretary in the late 1830s, played a large role in democratizing the government of British cities (other than London
London
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
). During his career in Parliament, Lord John Russell represented the City of London.
In 1845, as leader of the Opposition
Leader of the Opposition (UK)
The Leader of Her Majesty's Most Loyal Opposition in the United Kingdom is the politician who leads the Official Opposition in the United Kingdom. There is also a Leader of the Opposition in the House of Lords...
, Russell came out in favour of repeal of the Corn Laws
Corn Laws
The Corn Laws were trade barriers designed to protect cereal producers in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland against competition from less expensive foreign imports between 1815 and 1846. The barriers were introduced by the Importation Act 1815 and repealed by the Importation Act 1846...
, forcing Conservative
Conservative Party (UK)
The Conservative Party, formally the Conservative and Unionist Party, is a centre-right political party in the United Kingdom that adheres to the philosophies of conservatism and British unionism. It is the largest political party in the UK, and is currently the largest single party in the House...
Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel
Robert Peel
Sir Robert Peel, 2nd Baronet was a British Conservative statesman who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 10 December 1834 to 8 April 1835, and again from 30 August 1841 to 29 June 1846...
to follow him. When the Conservatives split the next year over this issue, the Whigs returned to power and Russell became Prime Minister
Prime minister
A prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government in a parliamentary system. In many systems, the prime minister selects and may dismiss other members of the cabinet, and allocates posts to members within the government. In most systems, the prime...
. Russell's premiership was frustrating, and, due to party disunity and infighting, he was unable to secure the passage of many of the measures he was interested in passing
Russell's first government coincided with the Great Irish Famine of the late 1840s. Russell's government also saw conflict with his headstrong Foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston, whose belligerence and support for continental revolution he found embarrassing. When, without royal approval, Palmerston recognized Napoleon III
Napoleon III of France
Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte was the President of the French Second Republic and as Napoleon III, the ruler of the Second French Empire. He was the nephew and heir of Napoleon I, christened as Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte...
's coup of 2 December 1851, Palmerston was forced to resign. In February of
1852, however, Palmerston had his revenge on John Russell by voting with the Opposition on a vote of "no confidence" to bring down the Russell government.
The government introduced a militia bill in the House of Commons. The vote on the mhad been militia bill was made a "vote of confidence" on the government. Palmerston succeeded in introducing an amendment to the militia bill which passed by eleven (11) votes.
Thus the majority vote in favour of the amendment to the militia bill caused the downfall of Russell's ministry, which occurred on February 21, 1852. Palmerston's amendment, thus, brought down the Russell government. This was Palmerston's famous "tit for tat" with Johnny Russell"--revenge for his dismissal by Russell as Foreign Minister.
In Opposition February of 1852 until December of 1852
The downfall of the Russell government set the stage for another general election to Parliament to be held in July 1852. The July 1852 general election saw the election of 330 Conservatives and 324 Whigs to the Parliament. Neither of these figures represented a majority of the House of Commons because there were also minor parties and independents elected to the House of Commons and these minor parties and independents now held the balance of power in the new House of Commons. There were 38 members who were technically Conservatives, but were actually Peelites (followers of the late Robert Peel). The Peelites had deserted the Conservatives to vote for the repeal of the Corn LawsCorn Laws
The Corn Laws were trade barriers designed to protect cereal producers in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland against competition from less expensive foreign imports between 1815 and 1846. The barriers were introduced by the Importation Act 1815 and repealed by the Importation Act 1846...
in June 1846. The Corn Laws had imposed a tariff on all cheap imported wheat and, thus, kept the price of wheat and the bread made from wheat high. This served the interests of landed aristocracy which was the main body of support for the Conservative Party. However, the high price of wheat and bread added greatly to the desperation of poor and hungry in England and Ireland.
There were also 113 members of the new Parliament who were "Free Traders." The Free Traders, were more radical than the Peelites. They felt that the tariffs on all imported consumer goods should be removed, not just the tariff on wheat or "corn."
There were also 63 members of the "Irish Brigade" elected to the new Parliament. The Irish Brigade was made up Irish members interested in the Tenant Rights legislation for the protection of the tenant farmers in Ireland.
None of these minor groups were interested in forming a government with the Conservatives because of the bitterness left over from the repeal of the Corn Laws. However, John Russell of the Whigs could not attract enough of the minor party members to form a government either. Other issues handled during the recent Russell government had alienated these three minor groups from the Whigs also. Thus, Queen Victoria asked the Earl of Derby
Earl of Derby
Earl of Derby is a title in the Peerage of England. The title was first adopted by Robert de Ferrers, 1st Earl of Derby under a creation of 1139. It continued with the Ferrers family until the 6th Earl forfeited his property toward the end of the reign of Henry III and died in 1279...
to form a minority government.
However the minority Conservative government under the Earl of Derby
Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby
Edward George Geoffrey Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby, KG, PC was an English statesman, three times Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, and to date the longest serving leader of the Conservative Party. He was known before 1834 as Edward Stanley, and from 1834 to 1851 as Lord Stanley...
was short lived and in December 1852, the Derby minority fell in another "no confidence vote."
Foreign Minister in the Aberdeen Government
Russell, as the leader of the Whigs, then brought the Whigs into a new coalition government with the Peelite Conservatives, headed by the Peelite Lord Aberdeen. Aberdeen was the Prime Minister from the small Peelite section of coalition government. Feelings against Palmerston still ran so strong because of his letter to the French ambassador endorsing Louis Bonaparte's coup of December 2, 1852, that Palmerston could not possibly be appointed as Foreign Minister. Nonetheless, Palmerston had to be a part of the new Aberdeen government. Accordingly, on December 28, 1852, Palmerston was appointed Home SecretaryHome Secretary
The Secretary of State for the Home Department, commonly known as the Home Secretary, is the minister in charge of the Home Office of the United Kingdom, and one of the country's four Great Offices of State...
. Russell continued to serve as Leader of the Whig Party in the House of Commons. As the leader of the largest party in the Aberdeen coalition government, Russell was needed in the new government. Accordingly, on December 28, 1852, Russell was appointed Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs
Foreign minister
A Minister of Foreign Affairs, or foreign minister, is a cabinet minister who helps form the foreign policy of a sovereign state. The foreign minister is often regarded as the most senior ministerial position below that of the head of government . It is often granted to the deputy prime minister in...
.
The "Eastern Question"
Together with Palmerston, Lord John Russell was instrumental in getting Britain involved with France in thwarting the rising power of the Russian EmpireRussian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
. They did so as a member of the Aberdeen government and against the wishes of the cautious, Russophile Earl of Aberdeen. The Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
was in a state of decline and several nations in Europe sought to take advantage of that decline. The Russian Empire
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
in particular sought to assert its terrtorial claims to southeastern Europe or the Balkans at the expense of Ottoman territory in Europe. However, just as soon as Louis Bonaparte had completed his coup against the Second Republic of France and assumed the title Napoleon III Emperor of France, he sent an ambassador to the Ottoman Empire with instructions to obtain from the Ottomans, a guarantee that France was to be the exclusive "protector of Christian sites" in Jerusalem and the Holy Land
Holy Land
The Holy Land is a term which in Judaism refers to the Kingdom of Israel as defined in the Tanakh. For Jews, the Land's identifiction of being Holy is defined in Judaism by its differentiation from other lands by virtue of the practice of Judaism often possible only in the Land of Israel...
. Louis Bonaparte was the nephew of Napoleon I, Emperor of France, and many British public officials - like Aberdeen - felt that Louis Bonaparte was merely seeking foreign adventure and aggrandizement and would sooner or later involve Britain in another series of wars like those wars against France and Napoleon
Napoleonic Wars
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of wars declared against Napoleon's French Empire by opposing coalitions that ran from 1803 to 1815. As a continuation of the wars sparked by the French Revolution of 1789, they revolutionised European armies and played out on an unprecedented scale, mainly due to...
from 1793 to 1815. France had long been seen as an opponent of British interests, and that perception had not changed since 1815. Accordingly, much of the British public sided with Russia or wished to remain neutral in this dispute between Russia and France over the future of the Ottoman Empire which was now being called the "Eastern Question
Eastern Question
The "Eastern Question", in European history, encompasses the diplomatic and political problems posed by the decay of the Ottoman Empire. The expression does not apply to any one particular problem, but instead includes a variety of issues raised during the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, including...
." However, as time passed, British public opinion would alter. The British government was worried about the outcome of the rising tensions over Eastern Question. Accordingly, Aberdeen sent, Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, a diplomat of considerable experience, to the Ottoman Empire, to oversee British interests.
When the Ottomans gave way to Louis Bonaparte's demands, Russia strongly objected and on May 7, 1853 one of Russia's leading statesmen, Prince Alexander Sergeyevich Menshikov
Alexander Sergeyevich Menshikov
Prince Aleksandr Sergeyevich Menschikov was a Finnish-Russian nobleman, military commander and statesman. He was made adjutant general in 1817 and admiral in 1833....
, arrived in Turkey to work out an agreement. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774, Russia had occupied the Turkish/Ottoman-controlled provinces of Wallachia
Wallachia
Wallachia or Walachia is a historical and geographical region of Romania. It is situated north of the Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians...
and Moldavia
Moldavia
Moldavia is a geographic and historical region and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester river...
. Under the Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarva signed in 1774, Russia had given these Danubian provinces back to Turkey (the Ottoman Empire) in exchange for Turkish recognition of Russia's exclusive right to "protect the Chistian sites in Jerusalem and the Holy Land." Menshikov worked out an agreement with Turkey and the Turks reversed themselves and agreed to the Russian agreement.
Lord John Russell, Palmerston and other public officials and an increasing number of the British public were beginning to see that the expansion of Russia was beginning to threaten British interests in India and British trade with Persia. They felt that an agreement with France and cooperation with the French on the Eastern Question was necessary to forestall Russian threats to British interests. Accordingly, they were willing to work with France even as France sent the French ship-of-the-line, Charlemagne to the Black Sea, in the spring of 1852, as a show of force against the Russians. In the face of the French show of force, the Ottomans, turned to Lord Stratford de Redcliffe for advice on the matter. Lord Stratford of Redcliffe was later accused of persuading the Ottomans to reject the Russian agreement. Accordingly, the Turks reversed themselves and signed a treaty acknowledging the French and the Vatican as the official protectors of the Christian sites in the Holy Land. The Russians responded by deploying the 4th and 5th Army Corps along the River Danube
Danube
The Danube is a river in the Central Europe and the Europe's second longest river after the Volga. It is classified as an international waterway....
. Additionally, the Russians began to court British political opinion. However, by this time it was too late. Public opinion in Britain had begun to shift toward sympathy for Turkey. Still the Aberdeen government resisted active pursuit of the war. Lord Russell became frustrated with the lack of support for Turkey shown by the British governemt. After pledging himself to the integrity and independence of Turkey, Russell resigned from the government on February 21, 1853. Aberdeen replaced Lord Russell, as Secretary of State for Foreign Afairs in his government with Lord Clarendon
George Villiers, 4th Earl of Clarendon
George William Frederick Villiers, 4th Earl of Clarendon KG, GCB, PC , was an English diplomat and statesman.-Background and education:...
.
Finally in May 1853, Aberdeen was forced to make a show of force, by sending a fleet under Admiral Armar Lowry Corry
Armar Lowry Corry
Rear Admiral Armar Lowry Corry was a British naval officer.-Naval career:Corry entered the Royal Navy on 1 August 1805, became a Lieutenant on 28 April 1812, a Commander on 13 June 1815, and Captain on 23 July 1821...
stationed in the Bay of Biscay to the island of Malta to join up with a squadron under Admiral Sir James Whitley Deans Dundas
James Whitley Deans Dundas
Admiral Sir James Whitley Deans Dundas GCB was a Royal Navy officer and a First Sea Lord.-Naval career:...
. The combined force was sent to join the French fleet at Salamis Island
Salamis Island
Salamis , is the largest Greek island in the Saronic Gulf, about 1 nautical mile off-coast from Piraeus and about 16 km west of Athens. The chief city, Salamina , lies in the west-facing core of the crescent on Salamis Bay, which opens into the Saronic Gulf...
near Athens, Greece. The combined Anglo-French fleet, then, sailed to a location off the coast of Turkey.
The Crimean War 1853-1856
On July 2, 1853, Russian troops occupied the Turkish-controlled provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia. This brought Russian troops to the northern banks of the River Danube. On July 2, 1853, Russian troops deployed along the northern banks of the Danube, implying a threat to cross the river. In response, the Turks moved their troops up to the southern bank of the Danube and fortified the strongholds at VidinVidin
Vidin is a port town on the southern bank of the Danube in northwestern Bulgaria. It is close to the borders with Serbia and Romania, and is also the administrative centre of Vidin Province, as well as of the Metropolitan of Vidin...
and Silistra
Silistra
Silistra is a port city of northeastern Bulgaria, lying on the southern bank of the lower Danube at the country's border with Romania. Silistra is the administrative centre of Silistra Province and one of the important cities of the historical region of Southern Dobrudzha...
.
The Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia on October 23, 1853. The Russian fleet defeated the Turkish fleet at the Battle of Sinope on November 30, 1853. After Russia had ignored the Anglo-French ultimatum, both France and Britain declared war on Russia on March 28, 1854.
In September 1854, British, French and Turkish troops landed on the Crimean Peninsula and set siege to the Russian fortress of Sevastopol
Sevastopol
Sevastopol is a city on rights of administrative division of Ukraine, located on the Black Sea coast of the Crimea peninsula. It has a population of 342,451 . Sevastopol is the second largest port in Ukraine, after the Port of Odessa....
. On October 25, 1854 the battle of Balaklava including the famous or infamous "charge of the light brigade," was fought. On November 5, 1854, the allied victory over the Russian troops at the battle of Inkermann broke the Russian will to defeat the allied troops in the field and reduced the outcome of the war to the outcome of the siege of Sevastopol
Siege of Sevastopol
There have been two Sieges of Sevastopol, a city on the Crimean peninsula:*Siege of Sevastopol - during the Crimean War*Siege of Sevastopol - during the Second World War* "The Siege of Sevastopol" is a traditional song...
. Members of Parliament began to have doubts about the misconduct of the war. Lord Russell, too began to be concerned about the have reservations about the conduct of the war and eventually, Lord Russell resigned his position within the government.
A motion in Parliament by John Arthur Roebuck
John Arthur Roebuck
John Arthur Roebuck , British politician, was born at Madras, in India.After the death of his father, a civil servant, his mother's second marriage transferred him to Canada, where he was chiefly brought-up. He came to England in 1824, was called to the bar John Arthur Roebuck (28 December 1802...
on January 29, 1855 called for an investigation into the conduct of the war by the government and, especially, an investigation of the conduct of the war by Duke of Newcastle—the Secretary for War. The motion passed the House of Commons by the large vote of 305 in favor and 148 against. to investigate the government became a vote of confidence in the Aberdeen government and in the Secretary for War. Accordingly, when the Robuck motion passed, Aberdeen treated the vote as a vote of "no confidence" on his government and resigned.
Upon the resignation of the Earl of Aberdeen, Lord Palmerston was asked formed a new government. John Russell was sent to Vienna to negotiate(accepting the Colonial Office) but sacrificed himself to protect negotiation confidentiality, and temporarily retired from politics in 1855, focusing on writing.
Foreign Minister in the Palmerston Government 1859-1860
In 1859, following another short-lived Conservative government, Palmerston and Russell made up their differences, and Russell consented to serve as Foreign Secretary in a new Palmerston cabinet - usually considered the first true LiberalLiberal Party (UK)
The Liberal Party was one of the two major political parties of the United Kingdom during the 19th and early 20th centuries. It was a third party of negligible importance throughout the latter half of the 20th Century, before merging with the Social Democratic Party in 1988 to form the present day...
Cabinet. This period was a particularly eventful one in the world outside Britain, seeing the Unification of Italy, the American Civil War
American Civil War
The American Civil War was a civil war fought in the United States of America. In response to the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, 11 southern slave states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America ; the other 25...
, and the 1864 war over Schleswig-Holstein
Schleswig-Holstein
Schleswig-Holstein is the northernmost of the sixteen states of Germany, comprising most of the historical duchy of Holstein and the southern part of the former Duchy of Schleswig...
between Denmark and the German states. His tenure of the Foreign Office was noteworthy for the famous dispatch in which he defended Italian independence: "Her Majesty's Government will turn their eyes rather to the gratifying prospect of a people building up the edifice of their liberties, and consolidating the work of their independence, amid the sympathies and good wishes of Europe" (27 October 1860).
The House of Lords 1860
Russell was elevated to the peerage as Earl RussellEarl Russell
Earl Russell, of Kingston Russell in the County of Dorset, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 30 July 1861 for the prominent Liberal politician Lord John Russell. He was Home Secretary from 1835 to 1839, Foreign Secretary from 1852 to 1853 and 1859 to 1865 and Prime...
, of Kingston Russell
Kingston Russell
Kingston Russell is a large mansion house and manor near Long Bredy in Dorset, England, west of Dorchester. The present house dates from the late 17th century but in 1730 was clad in a white Georgian stone facade. The house was restored in 1913, and at the same time the gardens were laid out...
in the County of Dorset
Dorset
Dorset , is a county in South West England on the English Channel coast. The county town is Dorchester which is situated in the south. The Hampshire towns of Bournemouth and Christchurch joined the county with the reorganisation of local government in 1974...
, and Viscount Amberley, of Amberley
Amberley
-Places:In Australia:* Amberley, Queensland, near Ipswich** RAAF Base AmberleyIn Canada:* Amberley, OntarioIn New Zealand:* Amberley, New Zealand, in north CanterburyIn the United Kingdom:* Amberley, Gloucestershire, England...
in the County of Gloucester and of Ardsalla in the County of Meath
County Meath
County Meath is a county in Ireland. It is part of the Mid-East Region and is also located in the province of Leinster. It is named after the ancient Kingdom of Mide . Meath County Council is the local authority for the county...
, and in 1861. As a peer in his own right, he sat in the House of Lords for the remainder of his career.
Prime Minister Again 1865-1866
When Palmerston suddenly died in late 1865, Russell again became Prime MinisterPrime minister
A prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government in a parliamentary system. In many systems, the prime minister selects and may dismiss other members of the cabinet, and allocates posts to members within the government. In most systems, the prime...
. His second premiership was short and frustrating, and Russell failed in his great ambition of expanding the franchise - a task that would be left to his Conservative successors, Derby and Benjamin Disraeli. In 1866, party disunity again brought down his government, and Russell went into permanent retirement.
Marriages and children
On 11 April 1835, Russell married Adelaide, Lady Ribblesdale, the eldest daughter of Thomas Lister Esq.Esquire
Esquire is a term of West European origin . Depending on the country, the term has different meanings...
and the widow of Thomas Lister, 2nd Baron Ribblesdale, who had died in 1832. Her death in 1838 cut the marriage short after three years. They had two daughters, Lady Georgiana Adelaide Russell (1836–1922), who married Archibald Peel and had a daughter, Grace (1878–1973); and Lady Victoria Russell (1838–1880), who married the Rev. Henry Montagu Villiers, son of Henry Montagu Villiers, Bishop of Durham
Henry Villiers
Henry Montagu Villiers was a British clergyman of the Church of England.-Life:He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, graduating M.A. in 1837, and became vicar of Kenilworth in that year rector of St. George's Church, Bloomsbury in 1841...
, and left many descendants.
On 20 July 1841 Russell married secondly Lady Frances Anna-Maria Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, daughter of Gilbert Elliot, 2nd Earl of Minto. Their children were John Russell, Viscount Amberley
John Russell, Viscount Amberley
John Russell, Viscount Amberley was the eldest son of John Russell, 1st Earl Russell. As such, from 1861 he took his father's junior title of Viscount Amberley, but he did not live to inherit the earldom; this passed, after his death, to his eldest son John Francis Stanley Russell, 2nd Earl Russell...
(1842–1876), George Gilbert William Russell (1848–1933); Francis Albert Rollo Russell (1849–1914) and Mary Augusta Russell (1853–1933). They lived at Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park
Richmond Park
Richmond Park is a 2,360 acre park within London. It is the largest of the Royal Parks in London and Britain's second largest urban walled park after Sutton Park, Birmingham. It is close to Richmond, Ham, Kingston upon Thames, Wimbledon, Roehampton and East Sheen...
.
After the death in 1876 of his eldest son, Lord Amberley, Russell and his second wife thereafter brought up his son's children, including Bertrand Russell
Bertrand Russell
Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, and social critic. At various points in his life he considered himself a liberal, a socialist, and a pacifist, but he also admitted that he had never been any of these things...
(1872–1970), who afterwards became a mathematician, philosopher, campaigner against nuclear weapons, and the third Earl Russell.
Legacy
He was succeeded as Liberal leader by former Peelite William Ewart GladstoneWilliam Ewart Gladstone
William Ewart Gladstone FRS FSS was a British Liberal statesman. In a career lasting over sixty years, he served as Prime Minister four separate times , more than any other person. Gladstone was also Britain's oldest Prime Minister, 84 years old when he resigned for the last time...
, and was thus the last true Whig to serve as Prime Minister. He may have served as Anthony Trollope
Anthony Trollope
Anthony Trollope was one of the most successful, prolific and respected English novelists of the Victorian era. Some of his best-loved works, collectively known as the Chronicles of Barsetshire, revolve around the imaginary county of Barsetshire...
's model for the character of Plantagenet Palliser
Plantagenet Palliser
Plantagenet Palliser, Duke of Omnium and Earl of Silverbridge, is a main character in the Palliser series of novels, also known as the "Parliamentary Novels," by Anthony Trollope....
. An ideal statesman, said Trollope, should have "unblemished, unextinguishable, inexhaustible love of country...But he should also be scrupulous, and, as being scrupulous, weak."
The 1832 Reform Act and the democratisation of the government of British cities are partly attributed to his efforts.
He also worked for emancipation, leading the attack on the Test
Test Act
The Test Acts were a series of English penal laws that served as a religious test for public office and imposed various civil disabilities on Roman Catholics and Nonconformists...
and Corporation acts
Corporation Act 1661
The Corporation Act of 1661 is an Act of the Parliament of England . It belongs to the general category of test acts, designed for the express purpose of restricting public offices in England to members of the Church of England....
, which were repealed in 1828, as well as towards legislation limiting working hours in factories in the 1847 Factory Act, and the Public Health Act of 1848.
His government's approach to dealing with the Irish Potato Famine is now widely condemned as counterproductive, ill-informed and disastrous; however, it has been argued that Russell himself (a "Foxite
Foxite
The term Foxite generally refers to an 18th or 19th century British Whig politician who adhered to the ideals and political beliefs of Charles James Fox, the 18th century member of parliament and leader of the Whig party....
" populist) was sympathetic to the plight of the Irish poor, and that many of his relief proposals were blocked by his cabinet or by the British Parliament.
Russell's governments
- First Russell ministryFirst Russell ministry-The Cabinet:† became the Earl of Carlisle in 1848‡ denotes becoming a member of the cabinet, not gaining the officeNotes*Lord Carlisle served as both Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and First Commissioner of Woods and Forests between March and July 1850.Changes*July, 1847: Henry Labouchere...
(July 1846–February 1852) - Second Russell ministrySecond Russell ministry-The Cabinet:Changes*February, 1866: The Lord de Grey succeeds Sir Charles Wood as Secretary for India. Lord Hartington succeeds Grey as Secretary for War.-References:...
(October 1865–June 1866)
Literature
In 1819 Lord John Russell published his book "Life of Lord Russell" about his famous ancestor.Between 1853 and 1856, he edited the Memoirs, Journal and Correspondence of Thomas Moore, which was published by Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans over 8 volumes.
A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens was dedicated to Lord John Russell "In remembrance of many public services and private kindnesses."
See also
- Principal residence and museum - Pembroke Lodge
- Internationalization of the Danube RiverInternationalization of the Danube RiverThe Danube River has been a trade waterway for centuries, but with the rise of international borders and the jealousies of national states, commerce and shipping has often been hampered for narrow reasons. In addition, natural features of the river, most notably the sanding of the delta, has often...
- Confederate States of America, International diplomacy
External links
- Lord John Russell 1792-1878 biography from the Liberal Democrat History Group
- Lord John Russell by Stuart J. Reid
- More about Earl Russell on the Downing Street website.