Johann Heinrich von Thünen
Encyclopedia
Johann Heinrich von Thünen (24 June 1783, – 22 September 1850) was a prominent nineteenth century economist. Von Thünen was a Mecklenburg
(north German) landowner, who in the first volume of his treatise, The Isolated State (1826), developed the first serious treatment of spatial economics, connecting it with the theory of rent. The importance lies less in the pattern of land use predicted than in its analytical approach.
Von Thünen developed the basics of the theory of marginal
productivity in a mathematically rigorous way, summarizing it in the formula in which
where R=land rent; Y=yield per unit of land; c=production expenses per unit of commodity; p=market price per unit of commodity; F=freight rate; m=distance to market.
The Von Thünen model of agricultural land, created before industrialization, made the following simplifying assumptions:
The use of a piece of land is put to is a function of the cost of transport to market and the land rent a farmer can afford to pay (determined by yield, which is held constant here).
The model generated four concentric rings of agricultural activity. Dairying and intensive farming lies closest to the city. Since vegetables, fruit, milk and other dairy products must get to market quickly, they would be produced close to the city.
Timber and firewood would be produced for fuel and building materials in the second ring. Wood was a very important fuel for heating and cooking and is very heavy and difficult to transport so it is located as close to the city.
The third zone consists of extensive fields crops such as grain. Since grains last longer than dairy products and are much lighter than fuel, reducing transport costs, they can be located further from the city.
Ranching is located in the final ring. Animals can be raised far from the city because they are self-transporting. Animals can walk to the central city for sale or for butchering.
Beyond the fourth ring lies the wilderness, which is too great a distance from the central city for any type of agricultural product.
Von Thünen's rings proved especially useful to economic history, such as Fernand Braudel
's Civilization and Capitalism, untangling the economic history of Europe and European colonialism before the Industrial Revolution
blurred the patterns on the ground.
In economics
, von Thünen rent is an economic rent
created by spatial variation or location of a resource. It is 'that which can be earned above that which can be earned at the margin of production'.
In his theory of "The Isolated State", he started out from Adam Smith
's idea of "economic man": that the farmer is expected to maximize his profit ("economic rent
") from his farmland. Von Thünen, as a landlord, knew that such returns depends on an optimal use of the land surfaces and the transport costs. In concentrating on the effects of these two variables on profits, removal of other factors results in a homogeneous - and isolated - state: A circular, completely undilating plane with a single, dominant market in the center and no interactions with the outside. The economy in the surrounding rural area would have to rearrange itself according to economic behavior in such a way that each industry brings optimal profit in:
Transport cost depends on the distance from the market and different kind of products. The gain from farming per unit area (locational rent) decreases with increasing distance from the market. The minimum price of a commodity is calculated by locational rent, transport costs and fixed production costs - the profit is then the difference between the costs and the fixed market price.
Idealized pattern of agricultural land use zones in von Thünen's model
Locational rent, a term used by von Thünen in his argument, is to be understood as the equivalent to land value. It corresponds to the maximum amount a farmer could pay for using the land, without making losses. It can be defined as the equation below:
is...
Take the locational rent of a product with a yield of 1,000
, for example, with a fixed price of 100 DM/t in the market. Production and transport costs are respectively, 50 DM/t and 1 DM/t/km. The locational rent is 50,000 DM/km2 at the market, 40,000 DM/km2 10 km from the market and only 20,000 DM/km2 30 km from the market. Since locational rent falls with increasing distance from the market, the amount each farmer is willing to pay for agricultural land will shrink and the price of land will eventually decline.
Von Thünen concluded that the cultivation of a crop is only worthwhile within certain distances from the city: beyond that, either the cost of the land becomes too high, with increasing distances transport costs also increase, or, if there is another product having greater yield or lower transport costs. After a distance from the market (the city) the production of a crop becomes unprofitable, either because its profits drop to zero or the profits earned by other crops are higher, as von Thünen calculated them for products having different intensities (cattle, wood, grain, eggs, milk, etc.): For each product there is a certain distance from the city where its production would be worthwhile. Since Thünen referred transport costs directly to the market ("Luftlinie"), circular land use zones arises - the Thünen rings.
Representation of the locational rent relationship between two agricultural goods
The farmers of these products compete against each other, plant their crops concentrically around the market according to the locational rent curves of their own crops. Products having low yields with high price and high transport costs relative to its weight or distance due to its weight, will have higher locational rent close to the market than a product having lower transport costs. Locational rent is the highest possible amount one will pay for the use of the land for a certain cultivation, and is a relative indicator of competitiveness of it in the market.
[work on]
However, the model tends to hold true in most instances.
The theory may break down somewhat in industrial and post-industrial economies as urban expansion/sprawl occur. For example, modern refrigerators enable perishable products to be transported longer distances
Like many other models in geography, von Thünen's model was criticized frequently due to its restrictive nature. The basic conditions of the model, however, could be approximated by slight modifications of the respective reality. The circular pattern, which can be attributed to only one market and excluding transport costs gradients running from the centre, is for example only one of many conceivable geometrical starting situations. If other natural landscapes or transportation routes are present, the land use zones would be stripe-formed. If several markets were present, groups of zones would be formed around each market.
A justified objection against it is the reference to the absence of any productive profit. In von Thünen's theory different agricultural uses compete for the optimal location, which results from the product-specific supply/expenditure relation. The competitive power becomes indirectly measurable over locational rent. After deducting production costs and location-specific transport costs, however, nothing more remains of the market profits. The von Thuenen model leads to the idea of complete self-sufficiency among farmers.
Thünen's idea of "economic rent" attempted - while ignoring other characteristics - to explain the use of zones controlled solely by economically rational perception. Possible consumers play, finally, the crucial role for the choice of location. At the same time evaluation of all potential locations is released, which leads to a zoning of the possible offers. This simply developed space restaurant model reacts however sensitively to changes of the space overcoming costs. It possesses however due to its universality nevertheless a high value within geographical questions and methodology.
Mecklenburg
Mecklenburg is a historical region in northern Germany comprising the western and larger part of the federal-state Mecklenburg-Vorpommern...
(north German) landowner, who in the first volume of his treatise, The Isolated State (1826), developed the first serious treatment of spatial economics, connecting it with the theory of rent. The importance lies less in the pattern of land use predicted than in its analytical approach.
Von Thünen developed the basics of the theory of marginal
Marginal concepts
In economics, marginal concepts are associated with a specific change in the quantity used of a good or service, as opposed to some notion of the over-all significance of that class of good or service, or of some total quantity thereof.- Marginality :...
productivity in a mathematically rigorous way, summarizing it in the formula in which
where R=land rent; Y=yield per unit of land; c=production expenses per unit of commodity; p=market price per unit of commodity; F=freight rate; m=distance to market.
The Von Thünen model of agricultural land, created before industrialization, made the following simplifying assumptions:
- The city is located centrally within an "Isolated State."
- The Isolated State is surrounded by wilderness.
- The land is completely flat and has no rivers or mountains.
- Soil quality and climate are consistent.
- Farmers in the Isolated State transport their own goods to market via oxcart, across land, directly to the central city. There are no roads.
- Farmers behave rationally to maximize profits.
The use of a piece of land is put to is a function of the cost of transport to market and the land rent a farmer can afford to pay (determined by yield, which is held constant here).
The model generated four concentric rings of agricultural activity. Dairying and intensive farming lies closest to the city. Since vegetables, fruit, milk and other dairy products must get to market quickly, they would be produced close to the city.
Timber and firewood would be produced for fuel and building materials in the second ring. Wood was a very important fuel for heating and cooking and is very heavy and difficult to transport so it is located as close to the city.
The third zone consists of extensive fields crops such as grain. Since grains last longer than dairy products and are much lighter than fuel, reducing transport costs, they can be located further from the city.
Ranching is located in the final ring. Animals can be raised far from the city because they are self-transporting. Animals can walk to the central city for sale or for butchering.
Beyond the fourth ring lies the wilderness, which is too great a distance from the central city for any type of agricultural product.
Von Thünen's rings proved especially useful to economic history, such as Fernand Braudel
Fernand Braudel
Fernand Braudel was a French historian and a leader of the Annales School. His scholarship focused on three main projects, each representing several decades of intense study: The Mediterranean , Civilization and Capitalism , and the unfinished Identity of France...
's Civilization and Capitalism, untangling the economic history of Europe and European colonialism before the Industrial Revolution
Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the 19th century where major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a profound effect on the social, economic and cultural conditions of the times...
blurred the patterns on the ground.
In economics
Economics
Economics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek from + , hence "rules of the house"...
, von Thünen rent is an economic rent
Economic rent
Economic rent is typically defined by economists as payment for goods and services beyond the amount needed to bring the required factors of production into a production process and sustain supply. A recipient of economic rent is a rentier....
created by spatial variation or location of a resource. It is 'that which can be earned above that which can be earned at the margin of production'.
Model of agricultural land use: the Thünen rings
Adam Smith
Adam Smith was a Scottish social philosopher and a pioneer of political economy. One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, Smith is the author of The Theory of Moral Sentiments and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations...
's idea of "economic man": that the farmer is expected to maximize his profit ("economic rent
Economic rent
Economic rent is typically defined by economists as payment for goods and services beyond the amount needed to bring the required factors of production into a production process and sustain supply. A recipient of economic rent is a rentier....
") from his farmland. Von Thünen, as a landlord, knew that such returns depends on an optimal use of the land surfaces and the transport costs. In concentrating on the effects of these two variables on profits, removal of other factors results in a homogeneous - and isolated - state: A circular, completely undilating plane with a single, dominant market in the center and no interactions with the outside. The economy in the surrounding rural area would have to rearrange itself according to economic behavior in such a way that each industry brings optimal profit in:
Transport cost depends on the distance from the market and different kind of products. The gain from farming per unit area (locational rent) decreases with increasing distance from the market. The minimum price of a commodity is calculated by locational rent, transport costs and fixed production costs - the profit is then the difference between the costs and the fixed market price.
Idealized pattern of agricultural land use zones in von Thünen's model
Locational rent, a term used by von Thünen in his argument, is to be understood as the equivalent to land value. It corresponds to the maximum amount a farmer could pay for using the land, without making losses. It can be defined as the equation below:
is...- L: Locational rent (in DM/
) - Y: Yield (in
) - P: Market price of the crop (in
) - C: Production cost of the crop (in
) - D: Distance from the market (in
) - F: Transport cost (in
)
Take the locational rent of a product with a yield of 1,000
, for example, with a fixed price of 100 DM/t in the market. Production and transport costs are respectively, 50 DM/t and 1 DM/t/km. The locational rent is 50,000 DM/km2 at the market, 40,000 DM/km2 10 km from the market and only 20,000 DM/km2 30 km from the market. Since locational rent falls with increasing distance from the market, the amount each farmer is willing to pay for agricultural land will shrink and the price of land will eventually decline.Von Thünen concluded that the cultivation of a crop is only worthwhile within certain distances from the city: beyond that, either the cost of the land becomes too high, with increasing distances transport costs also increase, or, if there is another product having greater yield or lower transport costs. After a distance from the market (the city) the production of a crop becomes unprofitable, either because its profits drop to zero or the profits earned by other crops are higher, as von Thünen calculated them for products having different intensities (cattle, wood, grain, eggs, milk, etc.): For each product there is a certain distance from the city where its production would be worthwhile. Since Thünen referred transport costs directly to the market ("Luftlinie"), circular land use zones arises - the Thünen rings.
Representation of the locational rent relationship between two agricultural goods
The farmers of these products compete against each other, plant their crops concentrically around the market according to the locational rent curves of their own crops. Products having low yields with high price and high transport costs relative to its weight or distance due to its weight, will have higher locational rent close to the market than a product having lower transport costs. Locational rent is the highest possible amount one will pay for the use of the land for a certain cultivation, and is a relative indicator of competitiveness of it in the market.
[work on]
Weaknesses and criticism
The model was developed in an isolated state and did not take into consideration differences in sites (local physical conditions). It can be modified by relaxing some of the conditions set forth by Von Thunen:- differential transportation costs. Example: boats are the cheapest mode of transportation.
- variations in topography
- soil fertility
- changes in demand or price of the commodity
However, the model tends to hold true in most instances.
The theory may break down somewhat in industrial and post-industrial economies as urban expansion/sprawl occur. For example, modern refrigerators enable perishable products to be transported longer distances
Like many other models in geography, von Thünen's model was criticized frequently due to its restrictive nature. The basic conditions of the model, however, could be approximated by slight modifications of the respective reality. The circular pattern, which can be attributed to only one market and excluding transport costs gradients running from the centre, is for example only one of many conceivable geometrical starting situations. If other natural landscapes or transportation routes are present, the land use zones would be stripe-formed. If several markets were present, groups of zones would be formed around each market.
A justified objection against it is the reference to the absence of any productive profit. In von Thünen's theory different agricultural uses compete for the optimal location, which results from the product-specific supply/expenditure relation. The competitive power becomes indirectly measurable over locational rent. After deducting production costs and location-specific transport costs, however, nothing more remains of the market profits. The von Thuenen model leads to the idea of complete self-sufficiency among farmers.
Thünen's idea of "economic rent" attempted - while ignoring other characteristics - to explain the use of zones controlled solely by economically rational perception. Possible consumers play, finally, the crucial role for the choice of location. At the same time evaluation of all potential locations is released, which leads to a zoning of the possible offers. This simply developed space restaurant model reacts however sensitively to changes of the space overcoming costs. It possesses however due to its universality nevertheless a high value within geographical questions and methodology.