The
Jingkang Incident (靖康事變), the
Humiliation of Jingkang (靖康之恥), or the
The Disorders of the Jingkang Period (靖康之乱) took place in 1127 when invading
JurchenThe Jurchens The Jurchens The Jurchens , 녀진 Nyŏjin (North Korea) were a Tungusic people who inhabited the region of Manchuria (Northeast China) until the 17th century, when they adopted the name Manchu...
soldiers from the
Jin DynastyThe Jīn Dynasty , also known as the Jurchen Dynasty, was founded by the Wanyan clan of the Jurchens, the ancestors of the Manchus who established the Qing Dynasty some 500 years later...
besiegedA siege is a military blockade of a city or fortress with the intent of conquering by attrition or assault. The term derives from sedere, Latin for "to sit"....
and sacked
BianjingKaifeng , formerly known as Bianliang , Bianjing , Daliang , or simply Liang , is a prefecture-level city in eastern Henan province, People's Republic of China...
(Kaifeng), the capital of the
Song DynastyThe Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
of
ChinaChina is a cultural region, an ancient civilization, and, depending on perspective, a national or multinational entity extending over a large area in East Asia....
. The Jin forces abducted
Emperor QinzongEmperor Qinzong was the ninth emperor of the Song Dynasty of China, and the last emperor of the Northern Song. His personal name was Zhao Huan. He reigned from January 1126 to January 1127....
, his father
Emperor EmeritusTaishang-huang was a Chinese title, sometimes translated in English as Retired Emperor, Grand Emperor or Emperor Emeritus used throughout East Asia, occasionally given to former emperors who had abdicated voluntarily to their sons...
HuizongEmperor Huizong was the eighth and one of the most famous emperors of the Song Dynasty of China, with a personal life spent amidst luxury, sophistication and art but ending in tragedy....
, along with many members of the imperial court.
This ended the era known as the Northern Song Dynasty, when the Song Dynasty controlled most of China. The rest of the
imperial familyA royal family is the extended family of a king or queen regnant. The term "imperial family" more appropriately describes the extended family of an emperor or empress regnant, while the terms "ducal family", "grand ducal family" or "princely family" are more appropriate in reference to the...
was forced to flee and establish a new government, now known as the Southern Song, at
Lin'an' is a sub-provincial city located in the Yangtze River Delta in the People's Republic of China, and the capital of Zhejiang province. Located southwest of Shanghai, as of 2004 the entire Hangzhou Region or Prefecture-level city had a registered population of 6.4 million people...
, which was to become their capital. This incident is so named because this was the major incident during the short
reignA reign is the term used to describe the period of a person's or dynasty's occupation of the office of monarch of a nation or of a people KwaZulu-Natal, Belgium. In most hereditary monarchies and some elective monarchies A reign is the term used to describe the period of a person's or dynasty's...
of Emperor Qinzong, whose
era nameA Chinese era name is the era name, reign period, or regnal title used when traditionally numbering years in an emperor's reign and naming certain Chinese rulers . Some emperors have several era names, one after another, where each beginning of a new era resets the numbering of the year back to...
was "Jingkang" (靖康).
Background
In 1120 AD, Jin &
Northern SongThe Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
joined forces to attack
LiaoThe Liao Dynasty , 907-1125, also known as the Khitan Empire , was an empire in East Asia that ruled over the regions of Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of northern China proper...
, an
empireThe following is a chronology of the dynasties in Chinese history. In reality, Chinese history is not as neat as is often described and it was rare indeed for one dynasty to end calmly and give way quickly and smoothly to a new one...
ruled by the
Khitan peoplethumb|250px|Khitans [[Eagle hunting|using eagles to hunt]], painted during the Chinese [[Song Dynasty]].The Khitan people , or Khitai, Kidan, were a nomadic people, originally located at Mongolia and Manchuria from the 4th century...
in the north. Both countries had agreed that, if victorious, Jin would get a large portion of the Northern Liao land and Song would get a smaller portion in the southern Liao region, called the
Sixteen PrefecturesThe Sixteen Prefectures are a region in northern China stretching from present-day Beijing westward to Datong. In most areas, it is approximately seventy to one hundred miles in width...
. The Jin army soon sacked the Liao capital
Shangjing and ended the Liao dynasty. The Song army in the south, however, could not even penetrate Liao’s defensive positions and the army was defeated by the remaining Liao troops afterwards. This exposed the limitation of the Song army, as well as the corruption and bureaucracy in Song’s imperial court. At the end, the Jin army took control of the entire Liao territory.
After the fall of Liao, Song court wanted the Sixteen Prefectures as promised. Jin sold the land at a price of 300,000 bolts of silk and 200,000 ounces of silver. This price was considered to be extremely generous because it was the tribute that Song was already paying to the former
Liao dynastyThe Liao Dynasty , 907-1125, also known as the Khitan Empire , was an empire in East Asia that ruled over the regions of Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of northern China proper...
annually since the
Shanyuan TreatyThe Shanyuan Treaty in 1004/05 was the pivotal point in the relations between the Northern Song and the Liao Dynasties . The ruling class of the Liao were a people of nomadic origin known as the Khitan who rose in the northeast around present-day Heilongjiang Province...
of 1005 AD.
Prelude to the war
According to the
Twenty-Four HistoriesThe Twenty-Four Histories is a collection of Chinese historical books covering a period of protohistory and history from 3000 BC to the Ming Dynasty in the 17th century. The whole set contains 3213 volumes and about 40 million words...
(二十四史), in 1123, three years after the fall of Liao, a Jin general called Zhang Jue (張覺) defected to the northern Song dynasty (both they and Zhang Jue were
Han ChineseHan Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and, by most modern definitions, the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92 percent of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98 percent of the population of the Republic of China , 75 percent of the...
). Since he was governor of the Jin-controlled Pingzhou Prefectures, an area just north of the Sixteen Prefectures on the other side of the Great Wall, the Pingzhou Prefectures were also merged into Song territory. The imperial court initially welcomed the defection and awarded Zhang an honorific title and land. Jin, on the other hand, sent a small army aimed to overturn the defection but was defeated by Zhang’s troops.
Soon after that, the Song court realized Zhang’s defection would only bring more hostile actions from the north. Zhang Jue was executed in the winter of 1123. This came too late: in the fall of 1125,
Emperor Taizong of JinEmperor Taizong of Jin was emperor of the Jin Dynasty which ruled northern China from 1123 to 1134. His birth name was Wányán Wúqǐmǎi and his reign name was Tiānhuì ....
issued an order of full scale attack on Song territories.
First Siege of Kaifeng
TaizongTaizong can be the name of the following Chinese emperors :*Emperor Taizong of Tang *Emperor Taizong of Song...
’s armies invaded Song territory from the west and from the north. The Northern Force took swift action, sacked
QinhuangdaoQinhuangdao is a city in Hebei province, China. It is about 300 km east of Beijing, on the Bohai Sea, the innermost gulf of the Yellow Sea.-Geography:...
in October of 1125, sacked
BaodingBaoding is a prefecture-level city in Hebei province, China.-Administrative divisions:Baoding prefecture-level city consists of 3 municipal districts, 4 county-level cities, 18 counties:* Xinshi District...
,
DingzhouDingzhou is a county-level city in the Hebei province of China. Dingzhou is in Baoding prefecture, about halfway between Baoding and Shijiazhuang and have population of 1,200,000 in 2009.-History:...
,
ZhengdingZhengding is a county in Hebei Province approximately 260 kilometers south of Beijing, China. It is under the administration of nearby Shijiazhuang City and has a population of 594,000. Zhengding has been an important religious center for more than 1,000 years, from - at least - the times of...
and
XingtaiXingtai is a prefecture-level city in southern Hebei province, China. The prefecture-level city of Xingtai, with a total area of 12,486 square kilometers, administers 2 districts, 2 county-level cities and 15 counties. In 2004 it had an urban population of 561,400 and a total population of 6.73...
in January of the year after. The Northern Force, commanded by Wanyan Wolibu, did not meet much resistance as most of the Song generals surrendered themselves and the cities as soon as the Jin army arrived. On the other hand, the Western Force, commanded by
Wanyan NianhanWanyan Nianhan , later known by his Chinese name, Zonghan was one of the top military commanders of the Jurchen people both during their pre-imperial and early Jin Empire period.-Biography:...
, was held up near the cities of
DatongDatong is a city in the northern Shanxi Province in China, and is located a few hundred kilometres west by rail from Beijing with an elevation of 1090 meters. It has a population of approximately 3.11 million.- History :...
and
TaiyuanTaiyuan is a prefecture-level city and the capital of Shanxi province, China. In 2004, the city had a population of 3.4 million.-Pre-1911:...
from the very beginning and did not make much progress for the rest of the war. In February of 1126, the Northern Force crossed the
Yellow RiverThe Yellow River or Huang He / Hwang Ho is the second-longest river in China and the sixth-longest in the world at 5,464 kilometers . Originating in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai Province in western China, it flows through nine provinces of China and empties into the Bohai Sea...
and began the
siegeA siege is a military blockade of a city or fortress with the intent of conquering by attrition or assault. The term derives from sedere, Latin for "to sit"....
of
KaifengKaifeng , formerly known as Bianliang , Bianjing , Daliang , or simply Liang , is a prefecture-level city in eastern Henan province, People's Republic of China...
, the capital city of Song. Before the invaders surrounded the city,
Emperor HuizongEmperor Huizong was the eighth and one of the most famous emperors of the Song Dynasty of China, with a personal life spent amidst luxury, sophistication and art but ending in tragedy....
(徽宗) abdicated in favour of his twenty-six-year old son who became Emperor Qinzong (钦宗) and fled to the countryside with his entourage. Jin’s Northern Force faced difficult siege fighting that was not designed for cavalries as Kaifeng put up a fight in the face of invaders. At the same time, Jin's Western Force was still held up in Datong area and could not come to aid. In an effort to end the battle sooner, the young emperor sent his brother
Zhao GouEmperor Gaozong , born Zhao Gou, was the tenth emperor of the Song Dynasty of China, and the first emperor of the Southern Song. He reigned from 1127 to 1162. He fled south after the Jurchens overran Kaifeng in the Jingkang Incident, hence the beginning of the Southern Song dynasty 1127-1279...
, who later on became the first emperor of Southern Song Dynasty, to the enemy camp for peace talks. Taizong ordered to take Zhao Gou as hostage until the Song court came up with a ransom. Eventually, the Song court came forth with the money and the city of
TaiyuanTaiyuan is a prefecture-level city and the capital of Shanxi province, China. In 2004, the city had a population of 3.4 million.-Pre-1911:...
was also given to Jin as a “good faith gift.” Soon, Zhao Gou was released and the Northern Force started to withdraw.
Second Siege of Kaifeng
Everything went back to normal as soon as the invaders retreated: lavish parties continued to be held daily at the imperial palace. The “run-away emperor” – Huizong returned from the countryside, and joined the parties that were being held by his son. Song generals suggested that large numbers of troops ought to be garrisoned along the border of the Yellow River. Qinzong rejected the proposal by citing that the Jin might never come back. Many experienced generals who defended the city in the first siege of Kaifeng were removed from the capital and posted elsewhere in the country. Many army groups were decommissioned or sent back to their origins.
Three months after the first siege of the city. Jin sent two
ambassadorAn ambassador is the highest ranking diplomat who represents their country. They are usually accredited to a foreign sovereign or government, or to an international organization, to serve as the official representative of their country....
s to Song. The two ambassadors were nobles from the former Liao Dynasty. Qinzong misjudged the situation and believed that they could be used to turn against their Jin ruler. The emperor sent a coded letter which was sealed in candle wax, inviting them to join Song to form an Anti–Jin alliance. The two handed the letter to Taizong right away. Furious, the Jin emperor ordered an even bigger army to attack Song. This second campaign would eventually topple the Northern Song Dynasty.
Since most of the Jin troops just got back from their first expedition and had not even unpacked, the army was quickly mobilized. The Jin army formed two army groups, Wolibu's Northern Force and Nianhan's Western Force, just like last time. In fact, the two army groups even took the same route as their last expedition.
In September of 1126, the two Jin army groups set foot in Song. Unlike last time, the Western Force was able to sack Datong within only one month. Cities like
LuoyangLuoyang is a prefecture-level city in western Henan province, People's Republic of China. It borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the southeast, Nanyang to the south, Sanmenxia to the west, Jiyuan to the north, and Jiaozuo to the northeast.Situated on the...
and
ZhengzhouZhengzhou , formerly called Zhengxian is a prefecture-level city, and the capital of Henan province, People's Republic of China.-History:...
surrendered themselves, clearing the way to the capital. The Northern Force sacked Baoding, Dingzhou and Zhengding in September, regrouped and crossed the Yellow River in November. It then went on a rampage and sacked Qingfeng,
PuyangPuyang is a prefecture-level city in northeastern Henan province, China. Located on the northern shore of the Yellow River, it borders Anyang in the west, Xinxiang in the southwest, and the provinces of Shandong and Hebei in the east and north respectively.-Administration:The prefecture-level city...
and other satellite cities around the capital in December. By the middle of December, the two forces regrouped at Kaifeng and the capital was finally besieged.
Unlike the first siege, Kaifeng’s defenses in the second siege had some fatal flaws:
- Due to the lack of experienced generals and personnel, the whole defense process was unorganized with no–prioritization.
- The Jin army was much bigger than the last time. Taizong sent a 150,000 strong force, having learnt from the first siege, when the Western Force was held up in Datong and could not advance on Kaifeng. This time, however, Datong was sacked within a month, and the full strength of the Western force was under the city walls.
- Although Qinzong called for help and many responded, the rapidity of deployment of Jin troops made it impossible to aid the city. Song troops from all over the country, including Zhao Gou’s troops came to Kaifeng but were not able to get into the city.
- Qinzong's trust in a minister who claimed he could bring "divine soldiers" (神兵) from the Heaven to the battleground was misplaced, causing much wasted time and human life.
On the 19th of January, 1127, Kaifeng fell. Emperor Qinzong and his father Huizong were captured by Jin army and the Northern Song Dynasty fell.
Abduction
On March 20, 1127 AD, Jin troops summoned the two captured emperors to their camps. Awaiting them was a directive from Taizong that they were to be demoted to commoners, stripped of their ceremonial trappings and Jin troops would compound the imperial palace. This was just the beginning of weeks of
lootingLooting , to rob, sacking, plundering, despoiling, or pillaging is the indiscriminate taking of goods by force as part of a military or political victory, or during a catastrophe or riot, such as during war, natural disaster, or rioting...
, rapes,
arsonArson is the crime of deliberately and maliciously setting fire to structures or wildland areas. It may be distinguished from other causes such as spontaneous combustion and natural wildfires caused by lightning for example. The study of the causes is the subject of fire investigation...
and execution of prisoners of war and civilians.
According to
the Accounts of JingkangThe Accounts of Jingkang is a series of Chinese books that were written in the Southern Song Dynasty by various authors. The books recorded the Fall of Northern Song Dynasty and its aftermath...
(靖康稗史箋證), Jin troops looted the entire imperial library and the decorations in the palace. Jin troops also abducted all the female servants and imperial musicians. The
royal familyA royal family is the extended family of a king or queen regnant. The term "imperial family" more appropriately describes the extended family of an emperor or empress regnant, while the terms "ducal family", "grand ducal family" or "princely family" are more appropriate in reference to the...
was abducted and their residences were looted. All the female prisoners were ordered, on pain of death, to serve the Jin troops no matter what rank in society they had previously held. A Jin general wanted Huizong’s daughter for his son, against the emperor's wishes. Later on, in an act of revenge, the emperor’s concubines were also given to the general’s son by Taizong.
Taizong feared that the remaining Song troops would launch a counter offensive to reclaim the capital. Therefore, he set up in Kaifeng a puppet government for the lands south of the
Yellow RiverThe Yellow River or Huang He / Hwang Ho is the second-longest river in China and the sixth-longest in the world at 5,464 kilometers . Originating in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai Province in western China, it flows through nine provinces of China and empties into the Bohai Sea...
(called Chu, 楚), and ordered all the assets and prisoners to be taken back to Jin's capital –
ShangjingHuining Fu was a prefecture in the Shangjing region of Manchuria . It served as the first superior capital of the Jin Dynasty between 1122 to 1234 .- History :...
(near today's
Harbin' , is a sub-provincial city and the capital of the Heilongjiang Province in Northeast China. It lies on the southern bank of the Songhua River...
) in Manchuria. The captives would march to the Jin capital along with the assets. Over 14,000 people, including the entire
royal familyA royal family is the extended family of a king or queen regnant. The term "imperial family" more appropriately describes the extended family of an emperor or empress regnant, while the terms "ducal family", "grand ducal family" or "princely family" are more appropriate in reference to the...
(except Zhao Gou) went on this “one-way” journey. Their entourage—almost all the ministers and generals of Northern Song Dynasty—suffered from
sicknessSickness may refer to:*Illness*Disease*Sickness behaviorIt could also refer to:*The Sickness, the debut album by Disturbed*The Sickness , the 29th book in the Animorphs series...
,
dehydrationDehydration is defined as excessive loss of body water. It is literally the removal of water from an object. In physiological terms, it entails a relative deficiency of water molecules in relation to other dissolved solutes...
and exhaustion, and many never made it. Upon arrival, everybody had to go through a Jurchen ritual where the person has to be naked and wearing only sheep skins. Empress Zhu committed suicide because she could not bear the humiliation. Men were sold into slavery in exchange for horses with a ratio of ten men for one horse. Women were sold into brothels or offered for public bidding. Anybody could buy an “ex–royal” for less than ten ounces of gold.
Aftermath and appraisal
- The scale of destruction and devastation was unprecedented: treasures, art collections, scrolls from the imperial library and human lives were lost on a scale that the Chinese had never seen before. Due to the heavy damage to the country's economy and military, and the loss of talented manpower, the Southern Song Dynasty would never recover the lost territories, despite many attempts. It would take another 200 years, in Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty , or Empire of the Great Ming , was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history," was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
, to claim back all the territories that Song DynastyThe Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
lost.
- Many foreign–sounding, non-traditional Chinese family names
Hundreds or thousands of Chinese family names have been historically used by Han Chinese and Sinicized Chinese ethnic groups in mainland China, Taiwan, and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames, family names and clan names , existed.The colloquial expressions...
existing in China today can date back to this incident, as the Han Chinese were forced to adapt a Jin last name. In fact, many members of the royal family of Qing DynastyThe Qing Dynasty , also known as the Manchu Dynasty, was the last ruling dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912...
hold a last name of “Jue Luo” (觉罗), it is believed that they were the descendants of Huizong and Emperor Qinzong.
- This invasion, combined with the later Mongol ruling
The Yuan Dynasty , or Great Yuan Empire was both the continuation of the Mongol Empire and the Mongol founded historical state in Mongolia and China, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368. Although the dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, he had his grandfather Genghis Khan placed on the...
, were speculated to have caused China's advance into capitalism to fall behind by several centuries; although the Ming later restored the old order, their own fall to the Manchu were to stagnate china again. This view is supported by the fact that the Song economy had been advanced, and exhibited many features of capitalism. From this view, the Jingkang Incident has historic significance in China's decline in the modern age.
- Researchers in China who published their findings in the People's Political Consultative Daily
The Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference
[] , abbreviated CPPCC, is a political advisory body in the People's Republic of China...
in 2001, pointed out that this incident led to the transformation of Women's RightsThe term women's rights refers to freedoms and entitlements of women and girls of all ages. These rights may or may not be institutionalized, ignored or suppressed by law, local custom, and behavior in a particular society...
after Song DynastyThe Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
. Since almost the entire royal family was sold into slavery or brothel, Chinese rulers after Song emphasized the importance of Sexual normA sexual norm can refer to a personal or a social norm. Most cultures have social norms regarding sexuality, and define normal sexuality to consist only of certain legal sex acts between individuals who meet specific criteria of age, relatedness or social role and status.In most societies, the term...
, especially a woman's chastityChastity is sexual behavior of a man or woman acceptable to the ethical norms and guidelines of a culture, civilization, or religion.In the western world, the term has become closely associated with sexual abstinence, especially before marriage...
and loyaltyLoyalty is faithfulness or a devotion to a person or cause.-Loyalty and Marketing:The practice of providing discounts, prizes, or other incentives to encourage continued patronage of a business. Generally, loyalty programs are considered less expensive to maintain than allowing customer defection...
towards her husbandA husband is a male spouse, or participant in a marriage.-Origin and etymology:The term husband refers to Middle English huseband, from Old English hūsbōnda, from Old Norse hūsbōndi .-Related terms:A male attains the role of husband once he has participated as the...
. Chinese rulers of later dynasties instructed that when a woman is confronted between the choice of survival or the honor of chastity, survival is not an option.
Cultural references
- This incident was referred to as the "Lingering Humiliation of Jingkang" (靖康恥，猶未雪) in Man Jiang Hong
Mǎn Jīang Hóng ) is the title of a set of lyrical poems sharing the same pattern. If unspecified, it most often refers to the one normally attributed to legendary Song Dynasty general and Chinese national hero Yue Fei. However, Princeton University History Professor James T.C...
(滿江紅, 满江红), a lyrical poemCi is a kind of lyric Chinese poetry. For speakers of English, the word "ci" is pronounced somewhat like "tsuh". It is also known as Changduanju and Shiyu .Typically the number of characters in each line and the arrangement of tones were determined by one of around 800 set...
normally attributed to SongThe Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
General Yue FeiYue Fei was a famous Chinese patriot and military general who fought for the Southern Song Dynasty against the Jurchen armies of the Jin Dynasty...
, but was written by someone else during the Ming DynastyThe Ming Dynasty , or Empire of the Great Ming , was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history," was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
.
- In The Legend of the Condor Heroes
The Legend of Condor Heroes is one of the most acclaimed Wuxia novels by Louis Cha. It is first serialized in 1957 in Hong Kong Commercial Daily. This is the first part of the Condor Trilogy...
, a wuxiaWuxia or Wǔxiá is a broad genre of Chinese fiction concerning the adventures of martial artists set in ancient China. Although Wuxia is traditionally a form of literature, it is now found in art, comics, films, television, theatre and video games...
novelA novel is a long narrative in literary prose. The genre has historical roots both in the fields of the medieval and early modern romance and in the tradition of the novella. The latter supplied the present generic term in the late 18th century....
by JinyongLouis Cha, GBM, OBE , better known by his pen name Jin Yong , is one of the most influential modern Chinese-language novelists...
, this national humiliation inspired the names of two of the main characters Guo JingGuo Jing is the fictional protagonist of The Legend of the Condor Heroes, a Wuxia novel by Louis Cha. He plays a supporting role in the sequel novel The Return of the Condor Heroes as well...
and Yang KangYang Kang is the fictional antagonist from The Legend of the Condor Heroes, a Wuxia novel by Louis Cha.-Birth and Heritage:...
, who were born soon afterwards.
Further reading
- Kaplan, Edward Harold. Yueh Fei and the founding of the Southern Sung. Thesis (Ph. D.) -- University of Iowa, 1970. Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1970.