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{{Citation style|date=September 2009}}
{{IPA notice}}
{{Selfref|For assistance with IPA transcriptions of Japanese for Wikipedia articles, see [[WP:IPA for Japanese]].}}
This article deals with the [[phonology]] (i.e. the sound system) of the '''[[Japanese language]]'''.
==Consonants==
{| class="wikitable"
|+Japanese phonemes
|-
!
! [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]{{ref|1a|1}}
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-align=center
! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA|m}}
| {{IPA|n}}
|
|
| {{IPA|ɴ}}{{ref|2a|2}}
|
|-align=center
! [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]{{ref|3a|3}}
| {{IPA|p b}}{{ref|4a|4}}
| {{IPA|t d}}
|
| {{IPA|k ɡ}}{{ref|4a|4}}
|
|
|-align=center
! [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
|
| {{IPA|s z}}{{ref|5a|5}}
|
|
|
| {{IPA|h}}{{ref|8a|8}}
|-align=center
! [[Flap consonant|Flap]]
|
| {{IPA|ɽ}}{{ref|6a|6}}
|
|
|
|
|-align=center
! [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|
|
| {{IPA|j}}
| {{IPA|w͍}}{{ref|7a|7}}
|
|
|}
:{{note|1a|1}} {{IPA|/t, d, n/}} are [[Laminal consonant|laminal]] denti-alveolar (that is, the blade of the tongue contacts the back of the upper teeth and the front part of the [[alveolar ridge]]) and {{IPA|/s z/}} are laminal alveolar. Before {{IPA|/i/}}, these sounds are [[alveolo-palatal]] ({{IPA|[tɕ (d)ʑ n̠ʲ ɕ (d)ʑ]}}) and before {{IPA|/u͍/}} they are alveolar ({{IPA|[ts (d)z n s (d)z]}}).
:{{note|2a|2}} {{IPA|/ɴ/}} is a [[Mora (linguistics)|moraic nasal]], fully a stop before another stop, where it becomes [[homorganic]] with that consonant, but not achieving full occlusion before fricatives or between vowels, where it is realized as a nasal vowel. Word finally before a pause, it may be realized as a uvular nasal stop, a bilabial nasal stop, or as a nasal vowel. Some analyses treat this as an abstract [[archiphoneme]] {{IPA|/N/}}; some as a coda {{IPA|/n/}}.
:{{note|3a|3}} Voiceless stops {{IPA|/p, t, k/}} are slightly [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]: less aspirated than English stops, but more so than Spanish.
:{{note|4a|4}} Voiced stops {{IPA|/b, ɡ/}} do not always achieve full occlusion, being sometimes realized as fricatives or approximants. Intervocalic {{IPA|/ɡ/}} is realized as {{IPA|[ŋ]}} in many dialects, especially in eastern Japan.
:{{note|5a|5}} The fricative {{IPA|[z~ʑ]}} is in free variation with the affricate {{IPA|[dz~dʑ]}}. Usually, this is represented phonemically as {{IPA|/z/}}.
:{{note|6a|6}} {{IPA|/ɽ/}} is an [[Apical consonant|apical]] postalveolar flap undefined for [[lateral consonant|laterality]]. That is, it is specified as neither a [[Alveolar flap|central]] nor a [[Alveolar lateral flap|lateral flap]], but may vary between the two. It is similar to the Korean ''r''. To an English speaker's ears, its pronunciation varies between a flapped ''d'' ({{IPA|[ɾ]}}, as in American English ''bu'''dd'''y'') and a flapped ''l'' {{IPA|[ɺ]}}, sounding most like ''d'' before {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/j/}} {{Audio|Ri_(Japanese).ogg|''listen''}}, most like ''l'' before {{IPA|/o/}} {{Audio|Ro_(Japanese).ogg|''listen''}}, and most like a retroflex flap {{IPA|[ɽ]}} before {{IPA|/a/}}.
:{{note|7a|7}} The [[rounded vowel|compressed]] velar {{IPA|/w͍/}} is essentially a non-[[Mora (linguistics)|moraic]] version of the vowel {{IPA|/u͍/}}. It is not equivalent to a typical IPA {{IPA|[w]}} since it is pronounced with lip compression rather than rounding ({{IPA|[ɰ͡β̞]}}).{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}
:{{note|8a|8}} {{IPA|/h/}} is {{IPA|[ç]}} before {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/j/}} {{Audio|Hi_(Japanese).ogg|''listen''}}, and {{IPA|[ɸ]}} before {{IPA|/u͍/}} {{Audio|Fu_(Japanese).ogg|''listen''}}, coarticulated with the labial compression of that vowel.
==Vowels==
Japanese has 5 vowels:
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em 2em"
! IPA !! Notes
|-
| {{IPAblink|a̠}} || This is a low central vowel; it is between the English ''a'' in "father" and the English ''a'' in "dad".
|-
| {{IPAblink|i}} || This sounds like the English ee in "feet".
|-
| {{IPA|[ü͍]}} || {{Audio|U (Japanese).ogg|''listen''}} This is a somewhat centralized close back compressed vowel, {{IPA|[ɯ͡β̞]}}, pronounced with the lips compressed toward each other but neither rounded like {{IPA|[u]}} nor spread to the sides like {{IPA|[ɯ]}}. There is no IPA symbol for lip compression, and the combination of round vowel with spread diacritic "{{IPA|[u͍]}}" is an ad hoc transcription.
|-
| {{IPAblink|e̞}} || This is a pure e, unlike the English "ay", which is a diphthong.
|-
| {{IPAblink|o̞}} || {{Audio|O_(Japanese).ogg|''listen''}} This is a pure o, unlike the English "oh", which is a diphthong. The tongue is kept lowered while pronouncing the Japanese o, and the lips are mostly kept from moving.
|}
[[Image:Japanese (standard) vowels.svg|thumb|Vowels of Standard Japanese. From {{Harvcoltxt|Okada|1991|p=94}}]]
The Japanese vowels are pronounced as [[monophthong]]s, unlike in English; except for {{IPA|/u/}}, they are similar to their [[Spanish language|Spanish]] or [[Italian language|Italian]] counterparts.
Vowels have a phonemic [[vowel length|length]] distinction (short vs. long). Compare contrasting pairs of words like ''ojisan'' {{IPA|/ozisaɴ/}} "uncle" vs. ''ojiisan'' {{IPA|/oziisaɴ/}} "grandfather", or ''tsuki'' {{IPA|/tuki/}} "moon" vs. ''tsūki'' {{IPA|/tuuki/}} "airflow".
In most [[Phonology|phonological]] analyses, all vowels are treated as occurring with the time frame of one [[mora (linguistics)|mora]]. Phonetically long vowels, then, are treated as a sequence of two identical vowels. For example, ''ojiisan'' is {{IPA|/oziisaɴ/}} not {{IPA|/oziːsaɴ/}}.
Within words and phrases, Japanese allows long sequences of phonetic vowels without intervening consonants, although the [[Japanese pitch accent|pitch accent]] and slight rhythm breaks help track the timing when the vowels are identical.
{| cellpadding="3" |
| {{IPA|/hoo.oꜜo.o/}} {{IPA|[hòō.óò.ō]}}
| ''hōō o'' (鳳凰を)
| "Phoenix ([[Fenghuang]])" (direct object)
|-
| {{IPA|/too.oo.oꜜ.oo.u/}} {{IPA|[tòo.ōo.ó.òō.ú͍]}}
| ''tōō o ōu'' (東欧を覆う)
| "to cover Eastern Europe"
(This artificial example would rarely be uttered in daily speech.)
|}
==Phonological processes==
Japanese contains a number of phonological processes which greatly alter the phonetic realization of consonants and vowels. A few are listed below.
====Weakening====
Non-[[coronal consonant|coronal]] [[voiced consonant|voiced]] [[stop consonant|stops]] {{IPA|/b, ɡ/}} between vowels may be weakened to [[fricative]]s, especially in fast and/or casual speech:
{| cellpadding="3"
|
|
| {{IPA|/b/}} → [[Voiced bilabial fricative|bilabial fricative]] {{IPA|[β]}}:
| {{IPA|/abaɽeɽu/}} → {{IPA|[aβaɾeɺu͍]}} ''abareru'' 暴れる 'to behave violently'
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|/ɡ/}} → [[Voiced velar fricative|velar fricative]] {{IPA|[ɣ]}}:
| {{IPA|/haɡe/}} → {{IPA|[haɣe]}} ''hage'' はげ 'baldness'
|}
However, {{IPA|/ɡ/}} is further complicated by its variant realization as a [[velar nasal]] {{IPA|[ŋ]}}. Standard Japanese speakers can be categorized into 3 groups (A, B, C), which will be explained below. If a speaker pronounces a given word consistently with the [[allophone]] {{IPA|[ŋ]}} (i.e. a B-speaker), that speaker will never have {{IPA|[ɣ]}} as an allophone in that same word. If a speaker varies between {{IPA|[ŋ]}} and {{IPA|[ɡ]}} (i.e. an A-speaker) or is generally consistent in using {{IPA|[ɡ]}} (i.e. a C-speaker), then the velar fricative {{IPA|[ɣ]}} is always another possible allophone in fast speech.
{{IPA|/ɡ/}} may be weakened to nasal {{IPA|[ŋ]}} when it occurs within words — this includes not only between vowels but also between a vowel and a consonant. There is a fair amount of variation between speakers, however. Some, such as {{Harvcoltxt|Vance|1987}}, have suggested that the variation follows social class; others, such as {{Harvcoltxt|Akamatsu|1997}}, suggest that the variation follows age and geographic location. The generalized situation is as follows.
'''At the beginning of words:'''
* all present-day standard Japanese speakers generally use the stop {{IPA|[ɡ]}} at the beginning of words: {{IPA|/ɡaijuu/}} → {{IPA|[ɡaiju͍u͍]}} ''gaiyū'' 外遊 'overseas trip' (but not {{IPA|*[ŋaiju͍u͍]}})
'''In the middle of simple words (i.e. non-[[Compound (linguistics)|compounds]]):'''
* '''A'''. majority of speakers uses either {{IPA|[ŋ]}} or {{IPA|[ɡ]}} in free variation: {{IPA|/kaɡu/}} → {{IPA|[kaŋu͍]}} or {{IPA|[kaɡu͍]}} ''kagu'' 家具 'furniture'
* '''B'''. minority of speakers consistently uses {{IPA|[ŋ]}}: {{IPA|/kaɡu/}} → {{IPA|[kaŋu͍]}} (but not {{IPA|*[kaɡu͍]}})
* '''C'''. smaller minority of speakers in Kantō consistently uses {{IPA|[ɡ]}}: {{IPA|/kaɡu/}} → {{IPA|[kaɡu͍]}} (but not {{IPA|*[kaŋu͍]}})
'''In the middle of compound words [[morpheme]]-initially:'''
* B-speakers mentioned directly above consistently use {{IPA|[ɡ]}}.
So, for some speakers the following two words are a [[minimal pair]] while for others they are homophonous:
* ''sengo'' 1,005 (せんご) 'one thousand five' = {{IPA|[seŋɡo]}} for B-speakers
* ''sengo'' 戦後 (せんこ゜) 'postwar' = {{IPA|[seŋŋo]}} for B-speakers
To summarize using the example of ''hage'' はげ 'baldness':
* A-speakers: {{IPA|/haɡe/}} → {{IPA|[haŋe]}} or {{IPA|[haɡe]}} or {{IPA|[haɣe]}}
* B-speakers: {{IPA|/haɡe/}} → {{IPA|[haŋe]}}
* C-speakers: {{IPA|/haɡe/}} → {{IPA|[haɡe]}} or {{IPA|[haɣe]}}
====Palatalization and affrication====
The palatals {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/j/}} palatalize the consonants they follow:
{| cellpadding="3"
|
|
| {{IPA|/m/}} → [[palatalization|palatalized]] {{IPA|[mʲ]}}:{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}
| {{IPA|/umi/}} → {{IPA|[u͍mʲi]}} ''umi'' 海 'sea'
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|/ɡ/}} → palatalized {{IPA|[ɡʲ]}}:
| {{IPA|/ɡjoːza/}} → {{IPA|[ɡʲoːza]}} ''gyōza'' ぎょうざ 'fried dumpling'
|-
|
|
| etc.
|
|
|}
For [[coronal consonant]]s, the palatalization goes further so that [[alveolopalatal consonant]]s correspond with dental or alveolar consonants ({{IPA|[ta]}} 'field' vs. {{IPA|[tɕa]}} 'tea'):
{| cellpadding="3"
|
|
| {{IPA|/s/}} → [[Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative|alveolopalatal fricative]] {{IPA|[ɕ]}}:
| {{IPA|/sio/}} → {{IPA|[ɕi.o]}} ''shio'' 塩 'salt'
|-
|
|
| valign=top | {{IPA|/z/}} → [[Alveolo-palatal consonant|alveolopalatal]] {{IPA|[dʑ]}} or {{IPA|[ʑ]}}:
| {{IPA|/zisiɴ/}} → {{IPA|[dʑiɕĩɴ]}} ''jishin'' 地震 'earthquake';
{{IPA|/ɡozjuu/}} → {{IPA|[ɡodʑu͍u͍]}} ~ {{IPA|[ɡoʑu͍u͍]}} ''gojuu'' 50 'fifty'
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|/n/}} → [[Alveolo-palatal consonant|alveolopalatal]] {{IPA|[n̠ʲ]}}:
| {{IPA|/niwa/}} → {{IPA|[n̠ʲiw͍a]}} ''niwa'' 庭 'garden'
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|/t/}} → [[Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate|alveolopalatal affricate]] {{IPA|[tɕ]}}:
| {{IPA|/tiziɴ/}} → {{IPA|[tɕidʑĩɴ]}} ~ {{IPA|[tɕiʑĩɴ]}} ''chijin'' 知人 'acquaintance'
|}
{{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/j/}} also palatalize {{IPA|/h/}} to a [[Voiceless palatal fricative|palatal fricative]] ({{IPA|[ç]}}): {{IPA|/hito/}} → {{IPA|[çi̥to]}} ''hito'' 人 ('person')
Of the allophones of {{IPA|/z/}}, the [[affricate]] {{IPA|[dz]}} is most common, especially at the beginning of utterances and after {{IPA|/ɴ/}} (or {{IPA|/n/}}, depending on the analysis), while [[Voiced alveolar fricative|fricative]] {{IPA|[z]}} may occur between vowels. Both sounds, however, are in [[free variation]]. The {{IPA|[n̠ʲ]}} is alveolopalatal, not a true palatal.
In the case of the {{IPA|/s/}}, {{IPA|/z/}}, and {{IPA|/t/}}, when followed by {{IPA|/j/}}, historically, the consonants were palatalized with {{IPA|/j/}} merging into a single pronunciation. In modern Japanese, these are arguably separate phonemes, at least for the portion of the population that pronounces them distinctly in English borrowings.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}
{| cellpadding="3"
|
|
| {{IPA|/sj/}} → {{IPA|[ɕ]}} (Romanized as ''sh''):
| {{IPA|/sjaboɴ/}} → {{IPA|/ɕaboɴ/}} → {{IPA|[ɕabõɴ]}} ''shabon'' シャボン 'soap'
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|/zj/}} → {{IPA|[dʑ]}} or {{IPA|[ʑ]}} (Romanized as ''j''):
| {{IPA|/zjaɡaimo/}} → {{IPA|/dʑaɡaimo/}} → {{IPA|[dʑaŋaimo]}} ''jagaimo'' じゃがいも 'potato'
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|/tj/}} → {{IPA|[tɕ]}} (Romanized as ''ch''):
| {{IPA|/tja/}} → {{IPA|/tɕa/}} → {{IPA|[tɕa]}} ''cha'' 茶 'tea'
|}
The vowel {{IPA|/u/}} also affects consonants that it follows:
{| cellpadding="3"
|
|
| {{IPA|/h/}} → [[Voiceless bilabial fricative|bilabial fricative]] {{IPA|[ɸ]}}:
| {{IPA|/huta/}} → {{IPA|[ɸu͍̥ta]}} ''futa'' ふた 'lid'
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|/t/}} → dental [[affricate]] {{IPA|[ts]}}:
| {{IPA|/tuɡi/}} → {{IPA|[tsu͍ŋi]}} ''tsugi'' 次 'next'
|}
Although {{IPA|[ɸ]}} and {{IPA|[ts]}} occur before other vowels in loanwords (e.g. {{IPA|[ɸaito]}}, 'fight'; {{IPA|[tsaitoɡaisu̥to]}}, 'Zeitgeist'; {{IPA|[eɾitsiɴ]}}, '[[Boris Yeltsin|Yeltsin]]'), {{IPA|*[hu͍]}} is still not distinguished from {{IPA|[ɸu͍]}} (e.g. English ''hoop'' > {{IPA|[ɸu͍pu]}}). Similarly, {{IPA|*[si]}} and {{IPA|*[zi]}} do not occur even in loanwords so that English ''cinema'' becomes {{IPA|[ɕinema]}}.
====Moraic nasal====
Some analyses of Japanese treat the moraic nasal as an [[archiphoneme]] {{IPA|/N/}}. However, other, less abstract approaches take its uvular citation pronunciation as basic, or treat it as a regular [[Coronal consonant|coronal]] {{IPA|/n/}}. Even when the nasal [[syllable coda|coda]] is proposed as {{IPA|/N/}}, it is in a [[complementary distribution]] with the nasal [[syllable onset|onset]]s within a syllable. In any case, it undergoes a variety of [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilatory]] processes. Within words, it is variously:
* uvular {{IPA|[ɴ]}} at the end of utterances and in isolation.
* bilabial {{IPA|[m]}} before {{IPA|[p]}}, {{IPA|[b]}} and {{IPA|[m]}}; this pronunciation is also sometimes found at the end of utterances and in isolation. Singers are taught to pronounce all final and prevocalic instances of this sound as {{IPA|[m]}}, which reflects its historical derivation.
* dental {{IPA|[n]}} before [[Coronal consonant|coronals]] {{IPA|[d]}} and {{IPA|[t]}}; never found utterance-finally.
* velar {{IPA|[ŋ]}} before {{IPA|[k]}} and {{IPA|[ɡ]}}. (a [[nasalization|nasalized]] vowel) before vowels, approximants ({{IPA|/j/}} and {{IPA|/w/}}), and fricatives ({{IPA|/s/}}, {{IPA|/z/}}, and {{IPA|/h/}}). Also found utterance-finally.
Some speakers produce {{IPA|/n/}} before {{IPA|/z/}}, pronouncing them as {{IPA|[ndz]}}, while others produce a nasalized vowel before {{IPA|/z/}} (see Akamatsu 1997).
The assimilation occurs beyond word boundaries.
====Moraic obstruent====
In some analyses of Japanese, an [[Phoneme#Neutralization, archiphoneme, and underspecification|archiphoneme]] {{IPA|/Q/}} is posited, corresponding to some uses of the [[sokuon]] っ. However, not all scholars agree that this is the best analysis. Even when the non-nasal [[syllable coda|coda]] is proposed as {{IPA|/Q/}}, it is in a [[complementary distribution]] with the non-nasal [[syllable onset|onset]]s. In those approaches that incorporate the moraic obstruent, it is said to completely assimilate to the following obstruent, resulting in a [[gemination|geminate]] (that is, double) consonant. The assimilated {{IPA|/Q/}} remains unreleased and thus the geminates are phonetically long consonants. {{IPA|/Q/}} does not occur before vowels or nasal consonants. This archiphoneme has several phonetic realizations, for example:
{| cellpadding="3"
|
|
| {{IPA|[p̚]}} before {{IPA|[p]}}:
| {{IPA|/ni'''Q'''poN/}} → {{IPA|[nʲi'''p̚'''.põɴ]}} ''nippon'' 日本 'Japan'
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[p̚]}} before {{IPA|[pʲ]}}:
| {{IPA|/ha'''Q'''pjaku/}} → {{IPA|[ha'''p̚'''.pʲa.ku͍]}} ''happyaku'' 八百 '800'
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[s]}} before {{IPA|[s]}}:
| {{IPA|/ka'''Q'''seN/}} → {{IPA|[ka'''s'''.sẽɴ]}} ''kassen'' 合戦 'battle'
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[t̚]}} before {{IPA|[tɕ]}}:
|{{IPA|/sa'''Q'''ti/}} → {{IPA|[sa'''t̚'''.tɕi]}} ''satchi'' 察知 'inference'
|-
|
|
| etc.
|}
Another analysis of Japanese dispenses with /Q/ and other archiphonemes entirely. In this approach, the words above are phonemicized as shown below:
{| cellpadding="3"
|
|
| {{IPA|[p̚]}} before {{IPA|[p]}}:
| {{IPA|/ni'''p'''pon/}} → {{IPA|[nʲi'''p̚'''.põɴ]}} ''nippon'' 日本 'Japan'
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[p̚]}} before {{IPA|[pʲ]}}:
| {{IPA|/ha'''p'''pjaku/}} → {{IPA|[ha'''p̚'''.pʲa.ku͍]}} ''happyaku'' '800'
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[s]}} before {{IPA|[s]}}:
| {{IPA|/ka'''s'''sen/}} → {{IPA|[ka'''s'''.sẽɴ]}} ''kassen'' 合戦 'battle'
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|[t̚]}} before {{IPA|[tɕ]}}:
|{{IPA|/sa'''t'''ti/}} → {{IPA|[sa'''t̚'''.tɕi]}} ''satchi'' 察知 'inference'
|-
|
|
| etc.
|}
The [[sokuon]] can be noted in IPA with a {{IPA|ː}} mark instead of a doubled consonant (i.e. {{IPA|[nʲipːõɴ]}} instead of {{IPA|[nʲip.põɴ]}}, {{IPA|[kasːẽɴ]}} instead {{IPA|[kas.sẽɴ]}}, etc.). However, this notation obscures a potential syllable boundary.
===={{IPA|/d, z/}} neutralization====
* The contrast between {{IPA|/d/}} and {{IPA|/z/}} is [[Phoneme#Neutralization, archiphoneme, underspecification|neutralized]] before {{IPA|/u/}} and {{IPA|/i/}}. By convention, it is often assumed to be {{IPA|/z/}}, though some analyze it as {{IPA|/dz/}}, the [[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]] counterpart to {{IPA|/ts/}}.
* The above applies only to the phonology. The writing system preserves morphological distinctions, though spelling reform has eliminated historical distinctions: つづく[続く] {{IPA|/tuduku/}}, いちづける[位置付ける] {{IPA|/itizukeru/}} from {{IPA|{{pipe}}iti+tukeru{{pipe}}}},
====Trill====
Occasionally the post-alveolar flap {{IPA|/ɾ/}} is realized as a [[Trill consonant|trill]] {{IPA|[r]}}, especially when conveying a vulgar nuance in speech. The phenomenon is called {{nihongo|''rolled tongue''|巻き舌|makijita}} in Japanese, and is usually transcribed by repeating the katakana syllable ''ru'' (ガルルルル for dog growling, プルルルル for phone ringing etc.). In the [[Kansai region]] and [[Yamanote and Shitamachi|Shitamachi in Tokyo]], it is sometimes used in a provocative sense with words like ''ahondara'' あほんだら 'dumbass' and ''kora'' こら 'hey!' (with a nuance of disapproval).
====Devoicing====
In many dialects, the high vowels {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} become devoiced when between voiceless consonants. However, when a word contains more than one such environment, devoicing in adjacent syllables doesn't normally occur. Additionally, {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} are devoiced following a downstep and a voiceless consonant at the end of a [[prosodic unit]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}
{| cellpadding="3"
|
|
| {{IPA|/kutuꜜ/}} → {{IPA|[ku̥tsú͍]}}
| ''kutsu'' 靴 'shoe'
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|/aꜜtu/}} → {{IPA|[átsu̥]}}
| ''atsu'' 圧 'pressure'
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|/hikaɴ/}} → {{IPA|[çi̥kãɴ́]}}
| ''hikan'' 悲観 'pessimism'
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|/hikaku/}} → {{IPA|[çi̥kakú͍]}}
| ''hikaku'' 比較 'comparison'
|-
|
|
|{{IPA|/kisitu/}} → {{IPA|[kʲi̥ɕitsu͍]}}
|''kishitsu'' 気質 'temperament'
|}
This devoicing is not restricted to only fast speech, though consecutive voicing may occur in fast speech.
To a lesser extent {{IPA|/o/}} may devoice with the further requirement that there be two or more adjacent moras containing {{IPA|/o/}}:{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}
{| cellpadding="3"
|
|
| {{IPA|/kokoꜜɾo/}} → {{IPA|[ko̥kóɺò]}}
| ''kokoro'' 心 'heart'
|}
The common sentence-ending [[copula (linguistics)|copula]] ''desu'' and polite suffix ''masu'' are typically pronounced {{IPA|[desu̥]}} and {{IPA|[masu̥]}}.
Japanese speakers are usually not even aware of the difference of the voiced and devoiced pair. On the other hand, gender roles play a part in prolonging the terminal vowel: it is regarded as effeminate to prolong, particularly the terminal "u" as in "arimasu". Some nonstandard varieties of Japanese can be recognized by their hyper-devoicing, while in some Western dialects and some registers of formal speech, every vowel is voiced.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}
====Nasalization====
Japanese vowels are slightly [[nasalization|nasalized]] when adjacent to nasals {{IPA|/m, n/}}. Before the moraic nasal {{IPA|/ɴ/}}, vowels are heavily nasalized:
{| cellpadding="3"
|
|
| {{IPA|/seesaɴ/}} → {{IPA|[seesãɴ́]}}
| ''seisan'' 生産 'production'
|}
====Glottal stop insertion====
At the beginning and end of utterances, Japanese vowels may be preceded and followed by a [[glottal stop]] {{IPA|[ʔ]}}, respectively. This is demonstrated below with the following words (as pronounced in isolation):
{| cellpadding="3"
|
|
| {{IPA|/eꜜɴ/}} → {{IPA|[ẽ́ɴ̀]}} ~ {{IPA|[ʔẽ́ɴ̀]}}:
| ''en'' 円 'yen'
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|/kisiꜜ/}} → {{IPA|[ki̥ɕíʔ]}}:
| ''kishi'' 岸 'shore'
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|/uꜜ/}} → {{IPA|[ú͍ʔ]}} ~ {{IPA|[ʔú͍ʔ]}}:
| ''u'' 鵜 'cormorant'
|}
When an utterance-final word is uttered with emphasis, this glottal stop is plainly audible, and is often indicated in the writing system with a small letter ''tsu'' っ called a [[sokuon]]. This is also found in interjections like あっ and えっ.
==Phonotactics==
In the same way that English words are divided into syllables, Japanese words are divided into [[Mora (linguistics)|moras]] (as the [[katakana]] and [[hiragana]] phonetic writing systems explicitly do), which are referred to in Japanese as "on" (or "[[onji]]"). Each mora has the same approximate time value and stress (stress, here, being correlated with pitch, not loudness). The Japanese mora may consist of either a vowel or one of the two moraic consonants, {{IPA|/N/}} and {{IPA|/Q/}}. A vowel may be preceded by an optional (non-moraic) consonant, with or without a palatal glide {{IPA|/j/}}. In this table, the period represents a division between moras, rather than the more common usage of a division between syllables.
{| border="0" cellspacing="3" cellpadding="4"
|-
| '''Mora Type'''
| '''Example'''
| '''Japanese'''
| '''moras per word'''
|-
| V
| {{IPA|/o/}}
| ''o'' 尾 'tail'
| 1-mora word
|-
| jV
| {{IPA|/jo/}}
| ''yo'' 世 'world'
| 1-mora word
|-
| CV
| {{IPA|/ko/}}
| ''ko'' 子 'child'
| 1-mora word
|-
| CjV
| {{IPA|/kjo/}}{{ref|1b|1}}
| ''kyo'' 巨 'hugeness'
| 1-mora word
|-
| N
| {{IPA|/N/}} in {{IPA|/ko.N/}} or {{IPA|/ko.n/}}
| ''kon'' 紺 'deep blue'
| 2-mora word
|-
| Q
| {{IPA|/Q/}} in {{IPA|/ko.Q.ko/}} or {{IPA|/ko.k.ːo/}}
| ''kokko'' 国庫 'national treasury'
| 3-mora word
|}
:{{note|1b|1}} Traditionally, moras were divided into plain and palatal sets, the latter of which entailing [[palatalization]] of the consonant element.
Consonantal moras are restricted from occurring word initially, though utterances starting with {{IPA|[n]}} are possible. Vowels may be long, and consonants may be geminate (doubled). Geminate consonants are limited to {{IPA|/ɴn/}}, {{IPA|/ɴm/}} and sequences of {{IPA|/Q/}} followed by a [[voiceless]] [[obstruent]], though some words are written with geminate voiced obstruents. In the analysis without archiphonemes, geminate clusters are simply two identical consonants, one after the other.
In [[English language|English]], [[stress (phonology)|stress]]ed [[syllable]]s in a [[word]] are pronounced louder, longer, and with higher pitch, while unstressed syllables are relatively shorter in duration. In Japanese, all moras are pronounced with equal length and loudness. Japanese is therefore said to be a [[timing (linguistics)|mora-timed]] language.
==Accent==
{{Main|Japanese pitch accent}}
Standard Japanese has a distinctive [[pitch accent]] system: a word can have one of its moras bearing an accent or not. An accented mora is pronounced with a relatively high tone and is followed by a drop in [[pitch accent|pitch]].
The various [[Japanese dialects]] have different accent patterns, and some exhibit more complex tonic systems.
==Further reading==
{{Language phonologies}}
{{Japanese language}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Japanese Phonology}}