Jain philosophy deals extensively with the problems of
metaphysicsMetaphysics investigates principles of reality transcending those of any particular science. Cosmology and ontology are traditional branches of metaphysics. It is concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of being and the world...
,
realityReality, in everyday usage, means "the state of things as they actually exist." Literally, the term denotes what is real; in its widest sense, this includes everything that is, whether or not it is observable or comprehensible. Reality in this sense includes being and sometimes is considered to...
,
cosmologyCosmology is the study of the Universe in its totality, and by extension, humanity's place in it...
,
ontologyOntology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, existence or reality in general, as well as of the basic categories of being and their relations...
,
epistemologyEpistemology or theory of knowledge is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge...
and
divinityDivinity and divine are broadly applied but loosely defined terms, used variously within different faiths and belief systems — and even by different individuals within a given faith — to refer to some transcendent or transcendental power, or its attributes or manifestations in the world...
.
JainismJainism is an ancient dharmic religion from India that prescribes a path of non-violence for all forms of living beings in this world. Its philosophy and practice relies mainly on self-effort in progressing the soul on the spiritual ladder to divine consciousness...
is essentially a
transtheisticTranstheistic is a term coined by philosopher Paul Tillich or Indologist Heinrich Zimmer, referring to a system of thought or religious philosophy which transcends theism, and is thus neither theistic nor atheistic....
religion of ancient India. It is a continuation of the ancient
{{Jain philosophy}}
Jain philosophy ({{lang-sa|Jain darsana}}; {{lang|sa|जैन दर्शन}}) deals extensively with the problems of
metaphysicsMetaphysics investigates principles of reality transcending those of any particular science. Cosmology and ontology are traditional branches of metaphysics. It is concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of being and the world...
,
realityReality, in everyday usage, means "the state of things as they actually exist." Literally, the term denotes what is real; in its widest sense, this includes everything that is, whether or not it is observable or comprehensible. Reality in this sense includes being and sometimes is considered to...
,
cosmologyCosmology is the study of the Universe in its totality, and by extension, humanity's place in it...
,
ontologyOntology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, existence or reality in general, as well as of the basic categories of being and their relations...
,
epistemologyEpistemology or theory of knowledge is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge...
and
divinityDivinity and divine are broadly applied but loosely defined terms, used variously within different faiths and belief systems — and even by different individuals within a given faith — to refer to some transcendent or transcendental power, or its attributes or manifestations in the world...
.
JainismJainism is an ancient dharmic religion from India that prescribes a path of non-violence for all forms of living beings in this world. Its philosophy and practice relies mainly on self-effort in progressing the soul on the spiritual ladder to divine consciousness...
is essentially a
transtheisticTranstheistic is a term coined by philosopher Paul Tillich or Indologist Heinrich Zimmer, referring to a system of thought or religious philosophy which transcends theism, and is thus neither theistic nor atheistic....
religion of ancient India. It is a continuation of the ancient
{{Jain philosophy}}
Jain philosophy ({{lang-sa|Jain darsana}}; {{lang|sa|जैन दर्शन}}) deals extensively with the problems of
metaphysicsMetaphysics investigates principles of reality transcending those of any particular science. Cosmology and ontology are traditional branches of metaphysics. It is concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of being and the world...
,
realityReality, in everyday usage, means "the state of things as they actually exist." Literally, the term denotes what is real; in its widest sense, this includes everything that is, whether or not it is observable or comprehensible. Reality in this sense includes being and sometimes is considered to...
,
cosmologyCosmology is the study of the Universe in its totality, and by extension, humanity's place in it...
,
ontologyOntology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, existence or reality in general, as well as of the basic categories of being and their relations...
,
epistemologyEpistemology or theory of knowledge is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge...
and
divinityDivinity and divine are broadly applied but loosely defined terms, used variously within different faiths and belief systems — and even by different individuals within a given faith — to refer to some transcendent or transcendental power, or its attributes or manifestations in the world...
.
JainismJainism is an ancient dharmic religion from India that prescribes a path of non-violence for all forms of living beings in this world. Its philosophy and practice relies mainly on self-effort in progressing the soul on the spiritual ladder to divine consciousness...
is essentially a
transtheisticTranstheistic is a term coined by philosopher Paul Tillich or Indologist Heinrich Zimmer, referring to a system of thought or religious philosophy which transcends theism, and is thus neither theistic nor atheistic....
religion of ancient India. It is a continuation of the ancient {{IAST tradition which co-existed with the
Vedic traditionVedic religion may refer to:*the historical Vedic religion- Vedic Hinduism **Vedic mythology*Shrauta, surviving conservative traditions within HinduismIn wider meanings of the term "Vedic"*Vedanta*Hinduism in general...
since ancient times. The distinguishing features of Jain philosophy are its belief on independent existence of soul and matter, denial of creative and omnipotent God, potency of karma,
eternal and uncreated universeJainism does not support belief in a creator deity. According to Jain doctrine, the universe and its constituents - soul, matter, space, time, and principles of motion have always existed . All the constituents and actions are governed by universal natural laws...
, a strong emphasis on
non-violenceAhiṃsā in Jainism is a fundamental principle forming the cornerstone of its ethics and doctrine. The term "ahimsa" means “non-violence”, “non-injury” or absence of desire to harm any life forms. Vegetarianism and other non-violent practices and rituals of Jains flow from the principle of Ahiṃsā...
, accent on relativity and
multiple facets of truth' is one of the most important and fundamental doctrines of Jainism. It refers to the principles of pluralism and multiplicity of viewpoints, the notion that truth and reality are perceived differently from diverse points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth.This is to...
, and morality and ethics based on
liberation' or Mokkha means liberation, salvation or emancipation of soul. It is a blissful state of existence of a soul, completely free from the karmic bondage, free from samsara, the cycle of birth and death. A liberated soul is said to have attained its true and pristine nature of infinite bliss,...
of soul. Jain philosophy attempts to explain the rationale of being and existence, the nature of the Universe and its constituents, the nature of bondage and the means to achieve liberation.
It has often been described as an ascetic movement for its strong emphasis on self-control, austerities and renunciation. It has also been called a model of philosophical
liberalismLiberalism is the belief in the importance of individual freedom. This belief is widely accepted today throughout the world, and was recognized as an important value by many philosophers throughout history...
for its insistence that truth is relative and multifaceted and for its willingness to accommodate all possible view-points of the rival philosophies. Jainism strongly upholds the individualistic nature of soul and personal responsibility for one's decisions; and that self-reliance and individual efforts alone are responsible for one's liberation.
Throughout its history, the Jain philosophy remained unified and single, although as a religion, Jainism was divided into various sects and traditions. The contribution of Jain philosophy in developing the Indian philosophy has been significant. Jain philosophical concepts like
AhimsaAhiṃsā in Jainism is a fundamental principle forming the cornerstone of its ethics and doctrine. The term "ahimsa" means “non-violence”, “non-injury” or absence of desire to harm any life forms. Vegetarianism and other non-violent practices and rituals of Jains flow from the principle of Ahiṃsā...
, Karma,
Moksa' or Mokkha means liberation, salvation or emancipation of soul. It is a blissful state of existence of a soul, completely free from the karmic bondage, free from samsara, the cycle of birth and death. A liberated soul is said to have attained its true and pristine nature of infinite bliss,...
,
SamsaraIn Jainism, ' is the worldly life characterized by continuous rebirths and reincarnations in various realms of existence. is described as mundane existence, full of suffering and misery and hence is considered undesirable and worth renunciation. The is without any beginning and the soul finds...
and like have been assimilated into the philosophies of other Indian religions like
HinduismHinduism is the predominant religion of the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism is often referred to as ', a Sanskrit phrase meaning "the eternal law", by its adherents. Generic "types" of Hinduism that attempt to accommodate a variety of complex views span folk and Vedic Hinduism to bhakti tradition, as...
and
BuddhismBuddhism, as traditionally conceived, is a path of salvation attained through insight into the ultimate nature of reality. It encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha...
in various forms.
[Zydenbos, Robert J. (2006)] While Jainism traces its philosophy from teachings of
MahaviraMahavira is the name most commonly used to refer to the Indian sage Vardhamana who established what are today considered to be the central tenets of Jainism. According to Jain tradition, he was the 24
th and the last Tirthankara...
and other Tirthankaras, various Jain philosophers from
KundakundaKundakunda is a celebrated Jain Acharya, Jain scholar monk, 2nd century CE, composer of spiritual classics such as: Samayasara, Niyamasara, Pancastikayasara, Pravacanasara, Atthapahuda and Barasanuvekkha. He occupies the highest place in the tradition of the Jain acharyas.He belonged to the Mula...
and Umasvati in ancient times to Yasovijaya in recent times have contributed greatly in developing and refining the Jain and Indian philosophical concepts.
Jain Cosmology
{{Main|Jain Cosmology}}
{{See|Jainism and non-creationism}}
Jain cosmologyJain cosmology considers the loka or universe as an uncreated entity, existing since infinity having no beginning or an end. Jain texts describe the shape of the universe as similar to a man standing with legs apart and arm resting on his waist. This Universe, according to Jainism, is narrow at...
denies the existence of a supreme being responsible for creation and operation of universe. According to Jainism, the universe and its constituents are eternal and uncreated.
Jain conception of the Universe
According to
JainismJainism is an ancient dharmic religion from India that prescribes a path of non-violence for all forms of living beings in this world. Its philosophy and practice relies mainly on self-effort in progressing the soul on the spiritual ladder to divine consciousness...
, this
loka or Universe is an uncreated entity, existing since infinity, immutable in nature, beginningless and endless. Jain texts describe the shape of the Universe as similar to a man standing with legs apart and arm resting on his waist. The Universe according to Jainism is narrow at top and broad at middle and once again becomes broad at the bottom.
{{IASTMahapurana is a major Jain text composed largely by Acharya Jinasena during the rule of Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha and completed by his pupil Gunabhadra in the 9th century CE. The section composed by Gunabhadra is called "Uttarapurana"...
of Ācārya
JinasenaJinasena is the name of several famous Jain Acharyas of the Digambar tradition.* The author of Harivamsha Purana in the 8th century. He belonged to the Punnata branch of Jain monks....
is famous for this quote -
{{cquote|
Some foolish men declare that the creator made the world. The doctrine that the world was created is ill advised and should be rejected.
If god created the world, where was he before the creation? If you say he was transcendent then and needed no support, where is he now?
How could god have made this world without any raw material? If you say that he made this first, and then the world, you are faced with an endless regression.}}
The constituents of reality
This Universe is made up of what Jains call the six
dravyas or substances which are the basic constituents of reality and are classified as follows:
- Jīva "जीव" - The living substances
- Jains believe that soul
The soul, in many religions, spiritual traditions, and philosophies, is the spiritual and eternal part of a living being, commonly held to be separable in existence from the body; distinct from the physical part. It is typically thought to consist of ones consciousness and personality, and can be...
s (Jīva) exist as a reality, having a separate existence from the body that houses it. Jīva is characterised by cetana (consciousness) and upayoga (knowledge and perception). Though the soul experiences both birth and death, it is neither really destroyed nor created. Decay and origin refer respectively to the disappearing of one state of soul and appearance of another state, these being merely the modes of the soul.
- Ajīva "अजीव" - Non-Living Substances
- Pudgala "पुद्गल" - Matter
The term matter traditionally refers to the substance that all objects are made of. One common way to identify this "substance" is through its physical properties; a common definition of matter is anything that has mass and occupies a volume...
- Matter is classified as solid, liquid, gaseous, energy, fine Karmic materials and extra-fine matter or ultimate particles. Paramānu or ultimate particles are considered the basic building block of all matter. One of the qualities of the Paramānu and Pudgala is that of permanence and indestructibility. It combines and changes its modes but its basic qualities remain the same. According to Jainism, it cannot be created nor destroyed.
- Dharma-tattva "धर्म तत्त्व" - Medium of Motion
In physics, motion means a change in the location of a body. Change in motion is the result of applied force. Motion is typically described in terms of velocity, acceleration, displacement, and time. An object's velocity cannot change unless it is acted upon by a force, as described by Newton's...
and Adharma-tattva "अधर्म तत्त्व" - Medium of Rest - Also known as Dharmāstikāya "धर्मास्तिकाय" and Adharmāstikāya "अधर्मास्तिकाय", they are unique to Jain thought depicting the principles of motion and rest. They are said to pervade the entire universe. Dharma-tattva and Adharma-tattva are by themselves not motion or rest but mediate motion and rest in other bodies. Without dharmāstikāya motion is not possible and without adharmāstikāya rest is not possible in the universe.
- Ākāśa "आकाश" - Space - Space
Space is the boundless, three-dimensional extent in which objects and events occur and have relative position and direction. Physical space is often conceived in three linear dimensions, although modern physicists usually consider it, with time, to be part of the boundless four-dimensional...
is a substance that accommodates souls, matter, the principle of motion, the principle of rest, and time. It is all-pervading, infinite and made of infinite space-points.
- Kāla "काल" - Time - Time
Time is a component of the measuring system used to sequence events, to compare the durations of events and the intervals between them, and to quantify the motions of objects...
is a real entity according to Jainism and all activities, changes or modifications can be achieved only through time. In Jainism, the time is likened to a wheel with twelve spokes divided into descending and ascending halves with six stages, each of immense duration estimated at billions of sagaropama or ocean years. According to Jains, sorrow increases at each progressive descending stage and happiness and bliss increase in each progressive ascending stage.
These are the uncreated existing constituents of the Universe which impart the necessary dynamics to the Universe by interacting with each other. These constituents behave according to the natural laws and their nature without interference from external entities.
Dharma or true religion according to Jainism is
vatthu sahāvo dhammo "वत्थु सहावो धम्मो" translated as "the intrinsic nature of a substance is its true religion."
Ontology and Metaphysics
{{See|Tattva (Jainism)}}
{{IAST|Jain
ontologyOntology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, existence or reality in general, as well as of the basic categories of being and their relations...
postulates existence of principle of sentient or consciousness called as
JivaIn Hinduism and Jainism, a jiva is a living being, or more specifically the immortal essence of a living being which survives physical death. It has a very similar usage to 'atma', but whereas atma refers to 'the cosmic self', 'jiva' is used to denote an individual 'living entity' or 'living...
or soul characterized by knowledge and perception. There are infinite independent souls categorized into: liberated and non-liberated. Infinite knowledge, perception and bliss are the intrinsic qualities of a soul. These qualities are fully enjoyed unhindered by liberated souls, but obscured by karmas in the case of non-liberated souls resulting in karmic bondage. This bondage further results in a continuous co-habitation of the soul with the body. Thus, an embodied non-liberated soul is found in four realms of existence - heavens, hells, humans and animal world – in a never-ending cycle of births and deaths also known as
samsāraSamsara is the endless cycle of suffering caused by birth, death and rebirth within Buddhism, Bön, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and other related religions....
. The soul is in bondage since beginningless time; however, it is possible to achieve liberation through rational perception, rational knowledge and rational conduct.}} Harry Oldmeadow notes that Jain ontology is both realist and dualist metaphysics. It is realist in the sense that knowledge of ultimate reality does not exclude the reality of the existing world; the enlightened worldview includes the knowledge of particulars and the world continues to be real even after the liberation. It is dualist in that the two prime categories of substancessoul and matter, are mutually exclusive.
According to Jainism, the soul is the master of its own
destinyDestiny refers to a predetermined course of events. It may be conceived as a predetermined future, whether in general or of an individual. It is a concept based on the belief that there is a fixed natural order to the cosmos....
. One of the qualities of the soul is complete lordship of its own destiny. The soul alone chooses its actions and soul alone reaps its consequences. No god, prophet or angel can interfere in the actions or the destiny of the soul. Furthermore, it is the soul alone who makes the necessary efforts to achieve liberation without any
divine graceIn Christianity, grace is "unmerited favor" from God. Divine grace is a description of the character of God, which is displayed by God's gifts to humanity. Grace describes the means by which humans are granted salvation...
. Amongst the twelve contemplations
(anupreksās) of Jains, one of them is the loneliness of one's soul and nature of the Universe and transmigration. Hence only by cleansing our soul by our own actions can we help ourselves.
{{IAST|Jain
metaphysicsMetaphysics investigates principles of reality transcending those of any particular science. Cosmology and ontology are traditional branches of metaphysics. It is concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of being and the world...
is based on seven (sometimes nine, with subcategories) truths or fundamental principles also known as
tattva, which are an attempt to explain the nature and solution to the human predicament. The first two are the two ontological categories of the soul and the non-soul, namely the axiom that they exist. The third truth is that through the interaction, called
yoga, between the two substances, soul and non-soul, karmic matter flows into the soul
āsrava, clings to it, becomes converted into karma and the fourth truth acts as a factor of bondage
bandha, restricting the manifestation of the consciousness intrinsic to it. The fifth truth states that a stoppage (
saṃvara) of new karma is possible through asceticism through practice of right conduct, faith and knowledge. An intensification of asceticism burns up the existing karma – this sixth truth is expressed by the word nirjarā. The final truth is that when the soul is freed from the influence of karma, it reaches the goal of Jaina teaching, which is liberation or
mokṣa' or Mokkha means liberation, salvation or emancipation of soul. It is a blissful state of existence of a soul, completely free from the karmic bondage, free from samsara, the cycle of birth and death. A liberated soul is said to have attained its true and pristine nature of infinite bliss,...
. Some authors add two additional categories: the meritorious and demeritorious acts related to karma
(puṇya and pāpa). These nine categories of cardinal truth, called
navatattva, form the basis of entire Jain metaphysics.}}
Epistemology and Logic
{{See|Anekantavada|Syadvada}}
Jainism made its own unique contribution to this mainstream development of philosophy by occupying itself with the basic epistemological issues, namely, with those concerning the nature of knowledge, how knowledge is derived, and in what way knowledge can be said to be reliable. Knowledge for the Jains takes place in the soul, which, without the limiting factor of karma, is omniscient. Humans have partial knowledge – the object of knowledge is known partially and the means of knowledge do not operate to their full capacity. According to
Tattvārthasūtra, the knowledge of the basic Jaina truths can be obtained through :
- {{IAST|Pramāṇa}} - means or instruments of knowledge which can yield a comprehensive knowledge of an object, and
- Naya - particular standpoints, yielding partial knowledge.
{{IAST|Pramāṇa are of five kinds:
- mati or “sensory knowledge”,
- Sruta or “scriptural knowledge”,
- avadhi or “clairvoyance”,
- manahparyaya or “telepathy”, and
- kevala” or “omniscience”
The first two are described as being indirect means of knowledge (parokṣa)
, with the others furnishing direct knowledge (pratyakṣa) , by which it is meant that the object is known directly by the soul.
As per Jainism, the truth or the reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth. Jain doctrine states that, an object has infinite modes of existence and qualities and, as such, they cannot be completely perceived in all its aspects and manifestations, due to inherent limitations of the humans. Only the
Kevalins' or ' in Jainism, is the highest form of knowledge that a soul can attain. A person who has attained is called a Kevalin. He is also known as Jina or Arhat...
- the omniscient beings - can comprehend the object in all its aspects and manifestations, and that all others are capable of knowing only a part of it. Consequently, no one view can claim to represent the absolute truth. In the process, the Jains came out with their doctrines of relativity used for logic and reasoning –
- Anekāntavāda - the theory of relative pluralism or manifoldness;
- Syādvāda – the theory of conditioned predication and;
- Nayavāda – The theory of partial standpoints.
These philosophical concepts have made most important contributions to the ancient
Indian philosophyThe term Indian philosophy , may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in the Indian subcontinent, including Hindu philosophy, Buddhist philosophy, and Jain philosophy...
, especially in the areas of skepticism and relativity.}}
Morality and Ethics
{{See|Ahimsa in Jainism|Mahavrata}}
The Jain morality and ethics are rooted in its metaphysics and its utility towards the soteriological objective of liberation. Jaina ethics evolved out of the rules for the ascetics which are encapsulated in the
mahavrataThe five Mahavratas are the five great vows Jain monks observe. They are:# Non-violence # Truth # Non-stealing # Chastity # Non-possession/Non-attachment...
s or the five great vows :
- Ahimsa
Ahimsa is a Sanskrit term meaning to do no harm . It is an important tenet of the religions that originated in ancient India . Ahimsa is a rule of conduct that bars the killing or injuring of living beings...
, non-violence
- Aparigraha
Aparigraha is the concept of non-possessiveness, being both a Jain concept and a part of the Raja Yoga or Ashtanga Yoga traditions. The term usually means to limit possessions to what is necessary or important, which changes with the time period, though sadhus would not have any possessions.It is...
, non-possession
- Asteya
Asteya is a Sanskrit word meaning "avoidance of stealing" or "non-stealing". In Jainism, it is one of the five vows that all sravakas and shravikas as well as sadhus and sadhvis must take....
, non-stealing
- Satya
Satya is a Sanskrit word that loosely translates into English as "truth" or "correct". It is a term of power due to its purity and meaning and has become the emblem of many peaceful social movements, particularly those centered on social justice, environmentalism and vegetarianism.Satya is also...
, truth
- Brahmacarya, celibacy
The ethics are governed not only through the instrumentality of physical actions, but also through verbal action and thoughts. Thus, ahimsa has to be observed through mind, speech and body. The other rules of the ascetics and laity are derived from these five major vows.
Jainism does not invoke the fear of God as a reason for moral behavior. The observance of the moral code is not necessary simply because it is a commandment of a God or any other supreme being. Neither, is its observance necessary simply because it is conducive to general welfare of the state or the community. While it is true that in Jainism, the moral and religious injunctions were laid down as law by Arhats
who have achieved perfection through their supreme moral efforts, their adherence is just not to please a God, but because the life of the Arhats has demonstrated that such commandments were conductive to Arhat’s
own welfare, helping him to reach spiritual victory. Just as Arhats
achieved {{IAST|mokṣa' or Mokkha means liberation, salvation or emancipation of soul. It is a blissful state of existence of a soul, completely free from the karmic bondage, free from samsara, the cycle of birth and death. A liberated soul is said to have attained its true and pristine nature of infinite bliss,...
}} or liberation by observing the moral code, so can anyone, who follows this path.
Karma: Law of Causation
{{Main| Karma in Jainism}}
Karma in Jainism conveys a totally different meaning as commonly understood in the
HinduHinduism is the predominant religion of the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism is often referred to as ', a Sanskrit phrase meaning "the eternal law", by its adherents. Generic "types" of Hinduism that attempt to accommodate a variety of complex views span folk and Vedic Hinduism to bhakti tradition, as...
philosophy and western civilization. It is not the so called inaccessible mystic force that controls the fate of living beings in some inexplicable way. It does not mean "deed", "work", nor invisible, mystical force (
adrstaAdrsta is a concept in Indian philosophy often confused with Karma. Whereas karma can be seen as a direct result of one's own actions, Adrsta is more akin to the notion of fate or destiny. It implies an unknown and invisible mystical force at work behind the universe....
), but a complexes of very fine matter, imperceptible to the senses, which interacts with the soul and causes great changes in it. The karma, then, is something material (karmapaudgalam), which produces in the soul certain conditions, even as a medical pill which, when introduced into the body, produces therein manifold effects. According to Robert Zydendos, karma in Jainism can be considered a kind of system of laws, but natural rather than moral laws. In Jainism, actions that carry moral significance are considered to cause certain consequences in just the same way as, for instance, physical actions that do not carry any special moral significance. When one holds an apple in one's hand and then let go of the apple, the apple will fall: this is only natural. There is no judge, and no moral judgment involved, since this is a mechanical consequence of the physical action.
Hence in accordance with the natural karmic laws, consequences occur when one utters a lie, steals something, commits acts of senseless violence or leads the life of a debauchee. Rather than assume that moral rewards and retribution are the work of a divine judge, the Jains believe that there is an innate moral order to the
cosmosIn its most general sense, a cosmos is an orderly or harmonious system. It originates from a Greek term κόσμος meaning "order, orderly arrangement, ornaments," and is the antithetical concept of chaos. Today the word is generally used as a synonym of the word Universe . The words cosmetics and...
, self-regulating through the workings of karma. Morality and ethics are important not because of the personal whim of a fictional god, but because a life that is led in agreement with moral and ethical principles is beneficial: it leads to a decrease and finally to the total loss of karma, which means: to ever increasing happiness.
The karmas can be said to represent a sum total of all unfulfilled desires of a soul. They enable the soul to experience the various themes of the lives that it desires to experience. They ultimately mature when the necessary supportive conditions required for maturity are fulfilled. Hence a soul may transmigrate from one life form to another for countless of years, taking with it the karmas that it has earned, until it finds conditions that bring about the fruits. Hence whatever suffering or pleasure that a soul may be experiencing now is on account of choices that it has made in past.
The following quote in Bhagavatī Ārādhanā (1616) sums up the predominance of karmas in Jain doctrine:-
- “There is nothing mightier in the world than karma;
- karma tramples down all powers, as an elephant a clump of lotuses.”
The nature of divinity and God
The undercurrent of
non-creationismJainism does not support belief in a creator deity. According to Jain doctrine, the universe and its constituents - soul, matter, space, time, and principles of motion have always existed . All the constituents and actions are governed by universal natural laws...
and absence of omnipotent God and divine grace runs strongly in all the philosophical dimensions of Jainism, including its
cosmologyJain cosmology considers the loka or universe as an uncreated entity, existing since infinity having no beginning or an end. Jain texts describe the shape of the universe as similar to a man standing with legs apart and arm resting on his waist. This Universe, according to Jainism, is narrow at...
, karma,
moksa' or Mokkha means liberation, salvation or emancipation of soul. It is a blissful state of existence of a soul, completely free from the karmic bondage, free from samsara, the cycle of birth and death. A liberated soul is said to have attained its true and pristine nature of infinite bliss,...
and its moral code of conduct. Jainism shows how a religious and virtuous life is possible without the idea of a creator god to whom one can turn to. Models for ethical life in Jainism are provided by the biographies of the twenty-four Jinas, the conquerors of the passions, of whom
MahāvīraMahavira is the name most commonly used to refer to the Indian sage Vardhamana who established what are today considered to be the central tenets of Jainism. According to Jain tradition, he was the 24
th and the last Tirthankara...
was the last. They are worshipped as divine beings, as their lives serve as a guiding principle and an emulation of their virtues can lead one to the same goal of liberation that they achieved.
According to Jainism, gods, that are worthy of worship and emulation, can be categorized into :
-
- Tīrthankara ,the ford makers
- Arhats or ordinary Kevalin, and
- Siddha
A siddha सिद्ध in Sanskrit means "one who is accomplished" and refers to perfected masters who, according to Hindu belief, have transcended the ahamkara , have subdued their minds to be subservient to their Awareness, and have transformed their bodies into a different kind of body dominated by...
, the liberated beings
Jainism considers, demi-gods and goddesses who dwell in heavens owing to meritorious deeds in their past lives, as unliberated beings who are subject to further re-incarnations. Worship of such gods is considered as mithyātva or wrong belief leading to bondage of karmas. However, many Jains are known to worship such gods for material gains.
Soteriology : The path to {{IAST|Moksha}}
{{Main| Moksa (Jainism)}}
{{IAST|Jainism is essentially a soteriological path where all the practices and beliefs are geared towards attainment of the ultimate objective- liberation of the soul. Jainism is also known as {{IAST|mokṣamārga}} – the path to liberation. Mokṣa is a blissful state of existence of a soul, completely free from the karmic bondage, free from
samsaraSamsara is the endless cycle of suffering caused by birth, death and rebirth within Buddhism, Bön, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and other related religions....
, the cycle of birth and death. A liberated soul is said to have attained its true and pristine nature of infinite bliss, infinite knowledge and infinite perception. Such a soul is called siddha or paramatman and considered as supreme soul or God. In
JainismJainism is an ancient dharmic religion from India that prescribes a path of non-violence for all forms of living beings in this world. Its philosophy and practice relies mainly on self-effort in progressing the soul on the spiritual ladder to divine consciousness...
, it is the highest and the noblest objective that a soul should strive to achieve. It fact, it is the only objective that a person should have; other objectives are contrary to the true nature of soul. With right faith, knowledge and efforts all souls can attain this state.}}
Contributions to Indian Philosophy
Jainism had a major influence in developing a system of philosophy and ethics that had a major impact on all aspects of Indian culture in all ages : from
UpanishadThe Upanishads are Hindu scriptures that constitute the core teachings of Vedanta. They do not belong to any particular period of Sanskrit literature: the oldest, such as the Brhadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads, date to the late Brahmana period , while the latest were composed in...
s to
Mahatma GandhiMohandas Karamchand Gandhi was the pre-eminent political and spiritual leader of India during the Indian independence movement...
. The scholarly research and evidences have shown that philosophical concepts that are considered typically Indian – Karma,
AhimsaAhiṃsā in Jainism is a fundamental principle forming the cornerstone of its ethics and doctrine. The term "ahimsa" means “non-violence”, “non-injury” or absence of desire to harm any life forms. Vegetarianism and other non-violent practices and rituals of Jains flow from the principle of Ahiṃsā...
,
Moksa' or Mokkha means liberation, salvation or emancipation of soul. It is a blissful state of existence of a soul, completely free from the karmic bondage, free from samsara, the cycle of birth and death. A liberated soul is said to have attained its true and pristine nature of infinite bliss,...
, reincarnation and like - either have their origins in the sramana school of thought or were propagated and developed by the Jaina teachers.
[Zydenbos, Robert J. (2006)] These concepts were later assimilated in
HinduismHinduism is the predominant religion of the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism is often referred to as ', a Sanskrit phrase meaning "the eternal law", by its adherents. Generic "types" of Hinduism that attempt to accommodate a variety of complex views span folk and Vedic Hinduism to bhakti tradition, as...
and other religions, often in a different form and sometimes having a different meaning. The sramanic ideal of mendicancy and renunciation, that the worldly life was full of suffering and that emancipation required giving up of desires and withdrawal into a lonely and contemplative life, was in stark contrast with the brahmanical ideal of an active and ritually punctuated life based on sacrifices, household duties and chants to deities. Sramanas developed and laid emphasis on Ahimsa, Karma, moksa and renunciation. Early Upanishad thinkers like
YajnavalkyaSage Yajnavalkya of Mithila was a legendary sage of Vedic India , credited with the authorship of the Shatapatha Brahmana , besides Yogayajnavalkya Samhita and the Yājñavalkya Smṛti...
were acquainted with the sramanic thinking and tried to incorporate these ideals into the vedic thought implying a disparagement of the vedic ritualism and recognising the mendicancy as an ideal.
Schools and traditions
{{Jainism timeline}}
Jain philosophy arose from the Sramana philosophy. In its 2,500 years post-Mahavira history, Jain philosophy remained, more or less, fundamentally the same as preached by
MahaviraMahavira is the name most commonly used to refer to the Indian sage Vardhamana who established what are today considered to be the central tenets of Jainism. According to Jain tradition, he was the 24
th and the last Tirthankara...
, who preached essentially the same religion as the previous Tirthankaras. However, he modified the four vows of Parsva by adding a fifth vow of celibacy. Jain texts like Uttaradhyana Sutra speak of parallel existence the order of Parsva which was ultimately merged into Mahaviras order.
Harry OldmeadowKenneth "Harry" Oldmeadow is an Australian author, editor and educator whose works focus on Eastern religion and philosophy.-Biography:Born in Melbourne in 1947 to Christian missionaries in India, he spent the first nine years of his childhood there and developed an early interest in the...
notes that the Jain philosophy remained fairly standard through out history and the later elaborations only sought to further elucidate preexisting doctrine and avoided changing the ontological status of any of the components. For a few centuries after Mahavira, the Jain religion remained united. The schisms into
ŚvetāmbaraThe Svetambara is one of the two main sects of Jainism, the other being Digambar...
and Digambara traditions arose mainly on account of differences in question of practice of nudity amongst monks and liberation of women. Apart from these minor differences in practices, there are no major philosophical differences between the different sects of Jainism. Tattvārthasūtra which encapsulates the major philosophical doctrine of Jainism is accepted by all traditions of Jainism. This coherence in philosophical doctrine and consistency across different schools has led many scholars like Jaini to remark that in the course of history of Jainism no heretical movements like Mahayana, tantric or bhakti movement developed outside mainstream Jainism. Thus, we have many traditions within the Jainism, but basically the same philosophy that is at the core of all the sects and sub-sects.
Earlier Traditions
As per the tradition, Jain Sangh was divided into two major sects, a few centuries after the
nirvana' in Jainism means final release from the karmic bondage. When an enlightened human, such as, an Arhat or a Tirthankara extinguishes his remaining aghatiya karmas and thus ends his worldly existence, it is called . Technically, the death of an Arhat is called of Arhat, as he has ended his wordly...
of Mahavira :
- Śvetāmbara
The Svetambara is one of the two main sects of Jainism, the other being Digambar...
– Svetambaras believe that women can attain liberation and that nudity is optional. Śvetāmbara scriptures support both acelakatva, nudity in monks and sacelakatva, the wearing of white clothes by ascetics. They also hold that Jain canon were not lost.
- Digambara - Digambaras hold that nudity is necessary for liberation and only men can attain the final stage of non-attachment to the body by remaining nude. They also hold that the canonical literature was eventually lost.
The now defunct,
YapaniyaYapaniya was a Jain order in western Karnataka which is now extinct.The first inscription that mentions them by Mrigesavarman a Kadamba king of Palasika who donated for a Jain temple, and made a grant to the sects of Yapaniyas, Nirgranthas , and the Kurchakas .The last inscription which mentioned...
sect followed Digambara nudity and eating from the hands while standing up; along with several Śvetāmbara beliefs and texts. They are now believed to have been absorbed in the Digambara community during the medieval period.
Medieval Traditions
The period of 16th to 18th century was a period of reforms in Jainism. The later schools arose against certain practices and belief that were perceived as corrupting and not sanctioned by scriptures. The following schools arose during this period :
- Sthanakvasi
Sthanakvasi is a sect of Jainism originally founded by a merchant named Lavaji about 1653 CE that believes that God is 'nirakar' and hence do not pray to any statue...
– Sthanakvasi arising from Svetambara tradition rejected idol worship as not sanctioned by scriptures.
- Terapanthi (Digambara)
DIGAMBER TERAPANTHThe Atyadhma movement among the Jains arose in 1626 A.D. in Agra. Its leading proponent was Banarasidas of Agra. Atyadhma groups flourished during 1644-1726 in Agra, Lahore and Multan. While the movement was based on the books written by Acharya Kundakunda, most of its followers...
– Digambara Terapantha movement arose in protest against the institution of BhattarakaA Bhattaraka is the head of traditional Jain institution. They are responsible for training of scholars, maintenance of libraries, managing the endowments, presiding over the installation ceremonies and running of Jain institutions....
s (Jain priestly class), usage of flowers and offerings in Jain temples, and worship of minor gods.
- Terapanthi (Śvetāmbara)
SWETAMBER TERAPANTHTerapanth is a religious sect under Swetambar Jain. The terapanthi sub-sect was founded by Swami Bhikanji Maharaj. Swami Bhikanji was formerly a Sthanakvasi saint and had initiation by Acharya Raghunatha. But he had differences with his Guru on several aspects of religious...
– Terapanthi, also a non-iconic sect, arose from Sthanakvasi on account of differences in religious practices and beliefs.
Recent developments
Dissatisfaction with the monkhood and its related emphasis on austerities saw rising of two new sects within Jainism in 20th Century. These were essentially led by laity rather than ascetics and soon became a major force to be reckoned with. The non-sectarian cult of
Srimad RajcandraRaychandbhai Ravajibhai Mehta , was a prominent Jain philosopher. He is especially notable for being one of the greatest influences on Mahatma Gandhi...
, who was one of the major influences on
Mahatma GandhiMohandas Karamchand Gandhi was the pre-eminent political and spiritual leader of India during the Indian independence movement...
is now one of the most popular cults amongst the Jains. Another cult founded by Kanjisvami laying stress on determinism and “knowledge of self” has gained a large following among Jains.
Jain Philosophers
Jains hold the Jain doctrine to be eternal and based on universal principles. In the current time cycle, they trace the origins of its philosophy to Rsabha, the first Tīrthankara. However, the tradition holds that the ancient Jain texts and
PurvasThe Fourteen Purvas, translated as ancient or prior knowledge, are a large body of scriptures that was preached by all Tirthankaras encompassing the entire gamut of knowledge available in this universe. The persons having the knowledge of purvas were given an exalted status of srut-kevali or...
which documented the Jain doctrine were lost and hence, historically, the Jain philosophy can be traced from Mahāvīras teachings. Post
MahāvīraMahavira is the name most commonly used to refer to the Indian sage Vardhamana who established what are today considered to be the central tenets of Jainism. According to Jain tradition, he was the 24
th and the last Tirthankara...
many intellectual giants amongst the Jain ascetics contributed and gave a concrete form to the Jain philosophy within the paramaters set by Mahavira. Following is the partial list of Jain philosophers and their contributions:
- Kundakunda
Kundakunda is a celebrated Jain Acharya, Jain scholar monk, 2nd century CE, composer of spiritual classics such as: Samayasara, Niyamasara, Pancastikayasara, Pravacanasara, Atthapahuda and Barasanuvekkha. He occupies the highest place in the tradition of the Jain acharyas.He belonged to the Mula...
(1st—2nd Century CE) - exponent of Jain mysticism and Jain nayas dealing with the nature of the soul and its contamination by matter, author of PañcāstikāyasāraPañcastikayasara, or the essence of reality, is a Digambara text by Kundakunda is part of his trilogy, known as the prahbrta-traya or the nataka-traya. Kundakunda explains the Jaina concepts of Ontology and Ethics...
(Essence of the Five Existents), the Pravacanasāra (Essence of the Scripture), the SamayasāraSamayasāra is a famous Jain text by Acharya Kundakunda.Its ten chapters discuss the nature of jiva , its attachment to karmas and moksha....
(Essence of the Doctrine), Niyamasāra (Essence of Discipline), Atthapāhuda (Eight Gifts), Dasabhatti (Ten Worships) and Bārasa Anuvekkhā (Twelve Contemplations).
- Samantabhadra
Samantabhadra , meaning Universal Worthy, is a Bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism associated with Buddhist practice and meditation. Together with Shakyamuni Buddha and fellow bodhisattva Manjusri he forms the Shakyamuni trinity in Buddhism...
(2nd Century CE) - first Jain writer to write on nyāya, (Apta-Mimāmsā), which has had the largest number of commentaries written on it by later Jain logicians. He also composed the Ratnakaranda Srāvakācāra and the Svayambhu Stotra.
- Umāsvāti or Umasvami (2nd Century CE) - author of first Jain work in Sanskrit, Tattvārthasūtra
Tattvartha Sutra is a Jaina text written by Acharya Umaswati or Umasvami. It was an attempt to bring together the different elements of the Jain Path, epistemological, metaphysical, cosmological, ethical and practical, otherwise unorganized around the scriptures in an unsystematic format...
, expounding the Jain philosophy in a most systematized form acceptable to all sects of Jainism.
- Siddhasena Divākara (5th Century CE) - Jain logician and author of important works in Sanskrit and Prakrit, such as, Nyāyāvatāra (on Logic) and Sanmatisūtra (dealing with the seven Jaina standpoints, knowledge and the objects of knowledge).
- Akalanka (5th Century CE) - key Jain logician, whose works such as Laghiyastraya, Pramānasangraha, Nyāyaviniscaya-vivarana, Siddhiviniscaya-vivarana, Astasati, Tattvārtharājavārtika, et al. are seen as landmarks in Indian logic. The impact of Akalanka may be surmised by the fact that Jain Nyāya is also known as Akalanka Nyāya.
- Pujyapada
Ācārya Pūjyapāda who lived in the 5th century of the Common Era was a renowned grammarian and saint belonging to the Digambara tradition of Jains. Before initiation as a Jain ascetic, he was known as Devanandi. Since it was believed that he was worshiped by demigods on account of his vast...
(6th Century CE) - Jain philosopher, grammarian, Sanskritist. Composed Samadhitantra, Ishtopadesha and the Sarvarthasiddhi, a definitive commentary on the Tattvārthasūtra and Jainendra Vyakarana, the first work on Sanskrit grammar by a Jain monk.
- Manikyanandi (6th Century CE) - Jain logician, composed the Parikshamaukham, a masterpiece in the karika style of the Classical Nyaya school.
- Jinabhadra (6-7th Century) – author of Avasyaksutra (Jain tenets) Visesanavati and Visesavasyakabhasya (Commentary on Jain essentials) He is said to have followed Siddhasena and compiled discussion and refutation on various views on Jaina doctrine.
- Mallavadin (8th Century) – author of Dvadasaranayacakra (Encyclopedia of Philosophy) which discusses all the school of Indian Philosophy
The term Indian philosophy , may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in the Indian subcontinent, including Hindu philosophy, Buddhist philosophy, and Jain philosophy...
. Mallavadin was known as a vadin i.e. a logician and he is said to have defeated many Buddhist monks on the issues of philosophy.
- Haribhadra
Haribhadra Suri was a Svetambara mendicant Jain leader and author.-History:There are multiple contradictory dates assigned to his birth. These include 459, 478, and 529. However, given his familiarity with Dharmakirti, a more likely choice would be sometime after 650...
(8th Century CE) - Jain thinker, author, philosopher, satirist and great proponent of anekāntavāda' is one of the most important and fundamental doctrines of Jainism. It refers to the principles of pluralism and multiplicity of viewpoints, the notion that truth and reality are perceived differently from diverse points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth.This is to...
and classical yoga, as a soteriological system of meditation in the Jain context. His works include {{IAST|Ṣaḍdarśanasamuccaya}}, Yogabindu and Dhurtakhyana. he pioneered the Dvatrimshatika genre of writing in Jainism, where various religious subjects were covered in 32 succinct Sanskrit verses.
- Prabhacandra (8th-9th Century CE) - Jain philosopher, composed a 106-Sutra Tattvarthasutra and exhaustive commentaries on two key works on Jain Nyaya, Prameyakamalamartanda, based on Manikyanandi's Parikshamukham and Nyayakumudacandra on Akalanka's Laghiyastraya.
- Abhayadeva (1057 CE to 1135CE) - author of Vadamahrnava (Ocean of Discussions) which is a commentary of Sanmartika and considered a great treatise on logic.
- Hemacandra (1089–1172 CE) - Jain thinker, author, historian, grammarian and logician. His works include Yogaśāstra and Trishashthishalakapurushacaritra and the Siddhahemavyakarana. He also authored an incomplete work on Jain Nyāya, titled Pramāna-Mimāmsā.
- Vadideva (11th Century) – He was a senior contemporary of Hemacandra and is said to have authored Paramananayatattavalokalankara and its voluminous commentary syadvadaratnakara that establishes the supremacy of doctrine of syadvada
Syādvāda is the Doctrine of Postulation of Jainism. In other words, Syādvāda provides the body of teachings or instruction which one uses to derive a postulate or axiom. The starting assumption or postulate is given as saptabhanginaya, from which other statements are logically derived...
.
- Vidyanandi (11th Century CE) - Jain philosopher, composed the brilliant commentary on Acarya Umasvami's Tattvarthasutra, known as Tattvarthashlokavartika.
- Yaśovijaya (1624–88 CE) – Jain logician and considered one of the last intellectual giant to contribute to Jain philosophy. He specialised in Navya-Nyāya and wrote Vrttis (commentaries) on most of the earlier Jain Nyāya works by Samantabhadra, Akalanka, Manikyanandi, Vidyānandi, Prabhācandra and others in the then-prevalent Navya-Nyāya style. Yaśovijaya has to his credit a prolific literary output – more than 100 books in Sanskrit
Sanskrit is a historical Indo-Aryan language, one of the liturgical languages of Hinduism and Buddhism, and one of the 22 official languages of India. It is also declared as a classical language by the government of India....
, PrakritPrakrit is the name for a group of Middle Indic, Indo-Aryan languages, derived from Classical Sanskrit and other Old Indic dialects. The word itself has a flexible definition, being defined sometimes as, "original, natural, artless, normal, ordinary, usual", or "vernacular", in contrast to the...
, GujaratiGujarati is an Indo-Aryan language, and part of the greater Indo-European language family...
and Rajashtani. He is also famous for Jnanasara (essence of knowledge) and Adhayatmasara (essence of spirituality).
In recent times, Aacharya Mahapragya, Pt. Sukhlal and Dr. Mahendrakumar Nyayacarya have made important contributions to Jain Philosophy.