Islamic bioethics
Encyclopedia
Islamic bioethics, or Islamic medical ethics
, (Arabic: الأخلاق الطبية al-akhlaq al-tibbiyyah) refers to Islamic guidance on ethical or moral
issues relating to medical and scientific fields, in particular, those dealing with human life.
, and should therefore be both respected and protected. This is evident in many Qur’anic verses or ayat, one of the most important being:
It is this verse which has ultimately fueled the interest in Islamic bioethics and within it exist two basic principles which ensure that the sanctity of human life is preserved:
Though Muslim
s recognize and maintain that Allah is the ultimate source of life (Qur’an 2:258), the Qur’an illustrates that God has instilled in them reason
, free will
, the ability to distinguish between what is morally acceptable and what is unacceptable (Qur’an 91:8) while also supplying the provisions of nature (Qur’an 45:13). With these things, Muslims are held responsible for maintaining health and preventing illness. In the event that illness occurs, Muslims are obliged to seek medical treatment in a manner which is Islamically appropriate and permissible.
. By evaluating bioethical issues from and ethical and legal standpoint, jurists can issue decrees or fatwa
s regarding the permissibility of the pertaining subject. Any rule that has not been explicitly outlined in the religious texts or formulated from them by jurists is referred to as bid'ah
(innovation) and, therefore, is haram
(impermissible). For this reason, all medical procedures and treatments, as well as conduct between patient and medical professional must be legitimized by the sources of Islamic law,
and James F. Childress, in their book, Principles of Biomedical Ethics. The concept of bioethical principles has since been regarded as a purely “Western” innovation which is absent in the Islamic health care system. These bioethical principles: autonomy
, beneficence
, non-maleficence and justice
have been legitimized by Muslims jurists as falling into the sphere of Islamic law and have also been supported by Qur’anic verses (Qur'an 3:104, 16:90 and 17:70). They have subsequently become the foundational spirit underlying the Oath of the Muslim Doctor http://www.islamset.com/ethics/code/oath.html and, thus, dictate the conduct between a Muslim physician and his or her patient.
) may then consult the religious texts and determine whether or not a specific issue is obligatory (wajib/fard
), recommended (mustahabb
), neutral (mubah
), discouraged (makruh
) or forbidden (haram
).
to issue fatwas ensuring that neither the progress of medical science is hindered, nor the Islamic code of bioethics
is jeopardized. The importance of Islamic law (sharia’) is so heavily valued that each issue is looked at independently and subsequently deemed permissible or impermissible. Specific issues addressed in the modern scientific era include abortion
, fertility treatments, family planning
, euthanasia
, genetic research, cloning
, stem cell research among many other issues.
libraries, the Bioethics Research Library
(Washington) and the School of Foreign Service-Qatar Library (Doha), have already compiled over 1,000 relevant written works into the IMSE Special Collection and have entered them into the searchable IMSE Database. The IMSE Project is funded by the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF), a member of the Qatar Foundation for Education, Science and Community Development
.
Medical ethics
Medical ethics is a system of moral principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of medicine. As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history, philosophy, theology, and sociology.-History:Historically,...
, (Arabic: الأخلاق الطبية al-akhlaq al-tibbiyyah) refers to Islamic guidance on ethical or moral
Moral
A moral is a message conveyed or a lesson to be learned from a story or event. The moral may be left to the hearer, reader or viewer to determine for themselves, or may be explicitly encapsulated in a maxim...
issues relating to medical and scientific fields, in particular, those dealing with human life.
Introduction
In Islam, human life is regarded as an invaluable gift from GodAllah
Allah is a word for God used in the context of Islam. In Arabic, the word means simply "God". It is used primarily by Muslims and Bahá'ís, and often, albeit not exclusively, used by Arabic-speaking Eastern Catholic Christians, Maltese Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, Mizrahi Jews and...
, and should therefore be both respected and protected. This is evident in many Qur’anic verses or ayat, one of the most important being:
"if anyone slays a human being, unless it be [in punishment] for murder or spreading corruption on earth, it shall be as though he had slain all mankind; whereas, if anyone saves a life, it shall be as though he had saved the lives of all mankind."(Qur’an 5:32)
It is this verse which has ultimately fueled the interest in Islamic bioethics and within it exist two basic principles which ensure that the sanctity of human life is preserved:
- Saving a life is obligatory.
- Unjustified taking of a life is classified as murder and, thus, forbidden.
Though Muslim
Muslim
A Muslim, also spelled Moslem, is an adherent of Islam, a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion based on the Quran, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God as revealed to prophet Muhammad. "Muslim" is the Arabic term for "submitter" .Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable...
s recognize and maintain that Allah is the ultimate source of life (Qur’an 2:258), the Qur’an illustrates that God has instilled in them reason
Reason
Reason is a term that refers to the capacity human beings have to make sense of things, to establish and verify facts, and to change or justify practices, institutions, and beliefs. It is closely associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, science, language, ...
, free will
Free will
"To make my own decisions whether I am successful or not due to uncontrollable forces" -Troy MorrisonA pragmatic definition of free willFree will is the ability of agents to make choices free from certain kinds of constraints. The existence of free will and its exact nature and definition have long...
, the ability to distinguish between what is morally acceptable and what is unacceptable (Qur’an 91:8) while also supplying the provisions of nature (Qur’an 45:13). With these things, Muslims are held responsible for maintaining health and preventing illness. In the event that illness occurs, Muslims are obliged to seek medical treatment in a manner which is Islamically appropriate and permissible.
Sources
The fundamental basis of Islamic bioethics is that all rulings and actions must fall into accordance with Islamic law (shari’a) and Islamic ethicsIslamic ethics
Islamic ethics , defined as "good character," historically took shape gradually from the 7th century and was finally established by the 11th century...
. By evaluating bioethical issues from and ethical and legal standpoint, jurists can issue decrees or fatwa
Fatwa
A fatwā in the Islamic faith is a juristic ruling concerning Islamic law issued by an Islamic scholar. In Sunni Islam any fatwā is non-binding, whereas in Shia Islam it could be considered by an individual as binding, depending on his or her relation to the scholar. The person who issues a fatwā...
s regarding the permissibility of the pertaining subject. Any rule that has not been explicitly outlined in the religious texts or formulated from them by jurists is referred to as bid'ah
Bid'ah
Bid‘ah is any type of innovation in Islam. It linguistically means "innovation, novelty, heretical doctrine, heresy". In contrast to the English term "innovation", in Arabic, the word bid'ah generally carries a negative connotation...
(innovation) and, therefore, is haram
Haram
The Arabic term has a meaning of "sanctuary" or "holy site" in Islam.-Etymology:The Arabic language has two separate words, and , both derived from the same triliteral Semitic root . Both of these words can mean "forbidden" and/or "sacred" in a general way, but each has also developed some...
(impermissible). For this reason, all medical procedures and treatments, as well as conduct between patient and medical professional must be legitimized by the sources of Islamic law,
- Qur’an,
- HadithHadithThe term Hadīth is used to denote a saying or an act or tacit approval or criticism ascribed either validly or invalidly to the Islamic prophet Muhammad....
or SunnahSunnahThe word literally means a clear, well trodden, busy and plain surfaced road. In the discussion of the sources of religion, Sunnah denotes the practice of Prophet Muhammad that he taught and practically instituted as a teacher of the sharī‘ah and the best exemplar... - IjtihadIjtihadIjtihad is the making of a decision in Islamic law by personal effort , independently of any school of jurisprudence . as opposed to taqlid, copying or obeying without question....
- In Sunni Islam, ijtihad includes qiyasQiyasIn Islamic jurisprudence, qiyās is the process of deductive analogy in which the teachings of the Hadith are compared and contrasted with those of the Qur'an, in order to apply a known injunction to a new circumstance and create a new injunction...
(analogy), ijmaIjmaIjmāʿ is an Arabic term referring to the consensus of the Muslim community. Various schools of thought within Islamic jurisprudence may define this consensus as that of the first generation of Muslims only; the consensus of the first three generations of Muslims; the consensus of the jurists...
(consensus), maslahaMaslahaMaslaha is a concept in traditional Islamic Law. It is invoked to prohibit or permit something on the basis of whether or not it serves the public's benefit or welfare. The concept is related to that of Istislah...
(public welfare) and ‘urfUrfUrf العرف is an Arabic Islamic term referring to the custom, or 'knowledge', of a given society. To be recognized in an Islamic society, Urf must be compatible with Sharia law...
(customary practice) - In Shi’a Islam it is comprised solely of al-'aql'Aql‘Aql , is an Arabic language term used in Islamic theology or philosophy to the intellect the rational faculty of the soul or mind. It is the normal translation of the Greek term nous...
(reason)
- In Sunni Islam, ijtihad includes qiyas
Principles
Principles of bioethics in the Western world were first developed and outlined by two American philosophers and bioethicists, Tom BeauchampTom Beauchamp
Tom L. Beauchamp is an American philosopher and bioethicist. He currently serves as Professor of Philosophy and Senior Research Scholar at the Kennedy Institute of Ethics at Georgetown University. He earned his B.A. from Southern Methodist University in 1963, a B.D. from Yale Divinity School, and...
and James F. Childress, in their book, Principles of Biomedical Ethics. The concept of bioethical principles has since been regarded as a purely “Western” innovation which is absent in the Islamic health care system. These bioethical principles: autonomy
Autonomy
Autonomy is a concept found in moral, political and bioethical philosophy. Within these contexts, it is the capacity of a rational individual to make an informed, un-coerced decision...
, beneficence
Beneficence
Beneficence is a bronze statue on the campus of Ball State University, located in Muncie, Indiana. It is referred to as "Benny" by the students.-History:...
, non-maleficence and justice
Justice
Justice is a concept of moral rightness based on ethics, rationality, law, natural law, religion, or equity, along with the punishment of the breach of said ethics; justice is the act of being just and/or fair.-Concept of justice:...
have been legitimized by Muslims jurists as falling into the sphere of Islamic law and have also been supported by Qur’anic verses (Qur'an 3:104, 16:90 and 17:70). They have subsequently become the foundational spirit underlying the Oath of the Muslim Doctor http://www.islamset.com/ethics/code/oath.html and, thus, dictate the conduct between a Muslim physician and his or her patient.
Authority
Formulations of rulings on bioethical issues in the Islamic context generally arise due to some form of deliberation between medical professionals and religious authority whom have been recognized as most qualified individuals of location or time period. After being approached by health care officials, a member of the religious authority (muftiMufti
A mufti is a Sunni Islamic scholar who is an interpreter or expounder of Islamic law . In religious administrative terms, a mufti is roughly equivalent to a deacon to a Sunni population...
) may then consult the religious texts and determine whether or not a specific issue is obligatory (wajib/fard
Fard
also is an Islamic term which denotes a religious duty. The word is also used in Persian, Turkish, and Urdu in the same meaning....
), recommended (mustahabb
Mustahabb
Mustahabb is an Islamic term referring to recommended, favored or virtuous actions.-Definition:Mustahabb actions are those whose status of approval in Islamic law falls between mubah and wajib...
), neutral (mubah
Mubah
'Mubah' is an Islamic Arabic term denoting an action as neither forbidden nor recommended, and so religiously neutral. This is one of the degrees of approval in Islamic law....
), discouraged (makruh
Makruh
In Islamic terminology, something which is makruh is a disliked or offensive act . Though it is not haram and therefore not a sin, a person who abstains from this action will be rewarded. Muslims are encouraged to avoid such actions when possible...
) or forbidden (haram
Haram
The Arabic term has a meaning of "sanctuary" or "holy site" in Islam.-Etymology:The Arabic language has two separate words, and , both derived from the same triliteral Semitic root . Both of these words can mean "forbidden" and/or "sacred" in a general way, but each has also developed some...
).
Modernity
As health care and science have progressed over time, and the Muslim population has also increased to over one billion adherents over every continent on the globe, there have been increasingly prevalent circumstances for the evaluation of technological applications and bioethical issues to determine how they fit into the Islamic sphere. As a result, larger bodies of Islamic committees have been formed to address issues at hand. National Committees of Medical Ethics/Bioethics have been formed in many Islamic countries which work together with ulemaUlema
Ulama , also spelt ulema, refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several fields of Islamic studies. They are best known as the arbiters of shari‘a law...
to issue fatwas ensuring that neither the progress of medical science is hindered, nor the Islamic code of bioethics
Bioethics
Bioethics is the study of controversial ethics brought about by advances in biology and medicine. Bioethicists are concerned with the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among life sciences, biotechnology, medicine, politics, law, and philosophy....
is jeopardized. The importance of Islamic law (sharia’) is so heavily valued that each issue is looked at independently and subsequently deemed permissible or impermissible. Specific issues addressed in the modern scientific era include abortion
Abortion
Abortion is defined as the termination of pregnancy by the removal or expulsion from the uterus of a fetus or embryo prior to viability. An abortion can occur spontaneously, in which case it is usually called a miscarriage, or it can be purposely induced...
, fertility treatments, family planning
Family planning
Family planning is the planning of when to have children, and the use of birth control and other techniques to implement such plans. Other techniques commonly used include sexuality education, prevention and management of sexually transmitted infections, pre-conception counseling and...
, euthanasia
Euthanasia
Euthanasia refers to the practice of intentionally ending a life in order to relieve pain and suffering....
, genetic research, cloning
Cloning
Cloning in biology is the process of producing similar populations of genetically identical individuals that occurs in nature when organisms such as bacteria, insects or plants reproduce asexually. Cloning in biotechnology refers to processes used to create copies of DNA fragments , cells , or...
, stem cell research among many other issues.
Islamic Medical and Scientific Ethics Project
The Islamic Medical and Scientific Ethics (IMSE) Project is a multinational effort to produce a comprehensive collection of Islamic bioethics resources. Project staff members at two Georgetown UniversityGeorgetown University
Georgetown University is a private, Jesuit, research university whose main campus is in the Georgetown neighborhood of Washington, D.C. Founded in 1789, it is the oldest Catholic university in the United States...
libraries, the Bioethics Research Library
Kennedy Institute of Ethics
The Kennedy Institute of Ethics was established at Georgetown University in 1971 as a bioethics center, think tank and library.Scholars based at the Institute, as of 2009, include Ruth Faden and Tom Beauchamp....
(Washington) and the School of Foreign Service-Qatar Library (Doha), have already compiled over 1,000 relevant written works into the IMSE Special Collection and have entered them into the searchable IMSE Database. The IMSE Project is funded by the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF), a member of the Qatar Foundation for Education, Science and Community Development
Qatar Foundation
Qatar Foundation for Education, Science and Community Development is a government-funded, chartered, non-profit organization in the state of Qatar, founded in 1995 by decree of Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani, Emir of Qatar and chaired by Sheikha Mozah bint Nasser Al Missned...
.