Irish syntax

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Irish syntax

Irish
Irish language

Irish , also known as Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic languages of the Indo-European language family, originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people....
syntax
Syntax

In linguistics, syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing Sentence s in natural languages. In addition to referring to the discipline, the term syntax is also used to refer directly to the rules and principles that govern the sentence structure of any individual language, as in "the Irish syntax"....
is rather different from that of most Indo-European languages

Indo-European languages

The Indo-European languages are a Language family of several hundred related languages and dialects, including most major languages of Europe, the Iranian plateau , Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent ....
, notably because of its VSO

Verb Subject Object

Verb Subject Object is a term in linguistic typology. It represents one type of languages when classifying languages according to the sequence of these constituents in neutral expressions: Ate Sam oranges....
word order.

normal word order in an Irish sentence is:

Preverbal particle
Irish verbs

Irish language verb forms are constructed either synthetically or analytically.Synthetic forms are those which express the information about grammatical person and grammatical number in the ending: e.g....
Verb
Verb

In syntax, a verb is a word that usually denotes an action , an occurrence , or a state of being . Depending on the language, a verb may vary in form according to many factors, possibly including its grammatical tense, grammatical aspect, grammatical mood and grammatical voice....
Subject
Subject (grammar)

The subject is one of the two main constituent every sentence can be divided into, according to a tradition that can be tracked back to Aristotle....
Direct object or predicate adjective
Adjective

In grammar, an adjective is a word whose main syntax role is to grammatical modifier a noun or pronoun, giving more information about the noun or pronoun's definition....
Indirect object
Location descriptor
Manner descriptor
Time descriptor

Only the verb and subject are obligatory; all other parts are optional (unless the primary or finite verb is transitive

Transitive verb

In syntax, a transitive verb is a verb that requires both a direct subject and one or more object s....
, in which case a direct object is required).

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Encyclopedia

Indo-European languages

Verb Subject Object

Normal word order

The normal word order in an Irish sentence is:

Preverbal particle
Irish verbs

Irish language verb forms are constructed either synthetically or analytically.Synthetic forms are those which express the information about grammatical person and grammatical number in the ending: e.g....
Verb
Verb

In syntax, a verb is a word that usually denotes an action , an occurrence , or a state of being . Depending on the language, a verb may vary in form according to many factors, possibly including its grammatical tense, grammatical aspect, grammatical mood and grammatical voice....
Subject
Subject (grammar)

The subject is one of the two main constituent every sentence can be divided into, according to a tradition that can be tracked back to Aristotle....
Direct object or predicate adjective
Adjective

In grammar, an adjective is a word whose main syntax role is to grammatical modifier a noun or pronoun, giving more information about the noun or pronoun's definition....
Indirect object
Location descriptor
Manner descriptor
Time descriptor

Only the verb and subject are obligatory; all other parts are optional (unless the primary or finite verb is transitive

Transitive verb

In syntax, a transitive verb is a verb that requires both a direct subject and one or more object s....
, in which case a direct object is required). In synthetic verb forms, the verb and subject are united in a single word, so that even one-word sentences are possible, e.g. "I understand."

An example sentence:


speaks	Mícheál	Irish	with Cáit	often
Verb	Subject	Dir.obj.	Ind.obj.	Time
"Mícheál speaks Irish with Cáit often."

Questions and answers

Irish has no words for "yes" and "no". The answer to a question contains a repetition (the same as in Latin

Latin

Latin is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Through the Military history of the Roman Empire, Latin spread throughout the Mediterranean and a large part of Europe....
) of the verb, either with or without a negative particle. For analytic forms, only the verb is given and the subject is not repeated. If a verb has different dependent and independent forms

Dependent and independent verb forms

In the Goidelic languages, dependent and independent verb forms are distinct verb forms used either with a preceding grammatical particle or, usually, without one ....
, the dependent form follows the interrogative or negative particle. The independent form is used where there is no particle.

"Does Seán ever listen to his mother?"

(not: ) "—Yes." (not: ) "—No."

"Aren't you listening to me?"

"—Yes, I am." "—No."

Commands

In a command the imperative

Imperative

Imperative can mean:*Imperative mood, a grammatical mood expressing commands, direct requests, and prohibitions*Imperative programming, a programming paradigm in computer science...
is used, and no subject is given.


give	to us	two	glasses	whiskey	please
"Please give us two glasses of whiskey!"

To express a negative command, the particle is used. This particle, which can be roughly translated "don't", causes neither eclipsis nor lenition, but attaches h to a following vowel.


don't	lose	the	money
"Don't lose the money!"


don't	tell	it	to them
"Don't tell it to them!"

Syntax of the verbal noun

A progressive aspect

Grammatical aspect

In linguistics, the grammatical aspect of a verb defines the temporal flow in the described event or state. In English, for example, the past-tense sentences "I swam" and "I was swimming" differ in aspect ....
can be formed by connecting the verbal noun

Verbal noun

A verbal noun is a noun formed directly as an inflexion of a verb or a verb Stem , sharing at least in part its constructions. This term is applied especially to gerunds, and sometimes also to infinitives and supines....
to the existential verb with the progressive particle .


is	Mícheál	at	speaking	Irish	with	Cáit	now
"Mícheál is speaking Irish with Cáit now."

The object of a verbal noun is in the genitive, if it is definite.


is	Séamas	at	reading	the newspaper (gen.)
"Séamas is reading the newspaper."

If a nonfinite clause forms the complement of the verb, the verbal noun stands alone (without a preposition) in the clause.


was successful	with me	catching	on the ball
"I succeeded in catching the ball."

The direct object of a verbal noun complement precedes the verbal noun; the leniting particle "to" is placed between them. Other complements follow.


I have intention	the knife	to	put	carefully	on the table
"I intend to place the knife carefully on the table."

Object pronouns

Generally, an object pronoun or a conjugated preposition stands at the end of a sentence in Irish. Compare this sentence:


told he	the story	to Bríd	yesterday
"He told the story to Bríd yesterday."

with the two following sentences:


told he	to Bríd	yesterday	it
"He told it to Bríd yesterday."


told he	the story	yesterday	to-her
"He told her the story yesterday."

Passive

Irish commonly uses the impersonal form (also called the autonomous form) instead of the passive

Passive

Passive is the opposite of active. It has several specific meanings:* Passive voice of a verb* Passivation is the formation of a non-reactive surface film that inhibits further corrosion of a metal...
voice.


one beat (pret.)	the dog
"Someone beat the dog"/"The dog was beaten."

In the perfect tense, the passive voice is formed by using the passive participle with the existential verb.


is	the window	broken	(by my brother)
"The window has been broken (by my brother)."

Stative verbs

Some verbs describing the state or condition of a person form a progressive present with the existential verb plus 'in (my, your, his etc.)' plus the verbal noun.


I am	in my sleep
"I'm asleep."


INTERR. PART.	are you	in your living	in Germany
"Do you live in Germany?"

The forms meaning "to be"

Irish, like Spanish

Spanish language

Spanish or Castilian is a Romance languages that originated in northern Spain, and gradually spread in the Kingdom of Castile and evolved into the principal language of government and trade....
and Portuguese

Portuguese language

Portuguese is a Romance language that originated in what is now Galicia and Portugal. It is derived from the Latin language spoken by the Romanization Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula around 2000 years ago....
, has two forms that can express the English verb "to be". The two forms perform different grammatical functions.

The existential verb

The existential verb is . It is an irregular verb

Irregular verb

In contrast to regular verbs, irregular verbs are those verbs that fall outside the standard patterns of grammatical conjugation in the languages in which they occur....
; see Irish verbs

Irish verbs

Irish language verb forms are constructed either synthetically or analytically.Synthetic forms are those which express the information about grammatical person and grammatical number in the ending: e.g....
for its conjugation.

Existence, condition or location

This verb expresses the absolute existence of something, its condition, or its location. When accompanied by the adverb "there" it means "exist" or "there is/are". Otherwise,the verb is complemented by an adjective, an adverb or a prepositional phrase.


is	God	there
"God exists; There is a God."


is	the box	empty
"The box is empty."


are	the apples	on the table
"The apples are on the table."

Definitions

A noun phrase

Noun phrase

In grammar, a noun phrase is a phrase whose Head is a noun or a pronoun, optionally accompanied by a set of modifiers.Noun phrases are very common linguistic typology, but some languages like Tuscarora language and Cayuga language have been argued to lack this category....
alone cannot form the predicate of the existential verb. Instead, the noun complement is preceded by a form meaning "in my, in your, in his" etc.


is	Seán	in his	doctor
"Seán is a doctor."

The copula

The Irish copula

Copula

In linguistics, a copula is a word used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate . Although it might not itself express an action or condition, it serves to equate the subject with the predicate....
is not a verb, but a particle used to express a definition or identification. It may be complemented by a noun

Noun

In linguistics, a noun is a member of a large, open class lexical category whose members can occur as the main word in the subject of a clause, the object of a verb, or the object of a preposition....
, a pronoun

Pronoun

In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun is a pro-form that substitutes for a noun with or without a Determiner , such as Wiktionary:you and Wiktionary:they in English language....
, an adjective

Adjective

In grammar, an adjective is a word whose main syntax role is to grammatical modifier a noun or pronoun, giving more information about the noun or pronoun's definition....
, or a topicalized

Topic (linguistics)

In linguistics, the topic is the part of the proposition of a Predicate Sentence . Once stated, the topic is therefore "old news", i.e. it has already been mentioned and understood....
phrase. Because it is not a verb, it does not inflect for person

Grammatical person

Grammatical person, in linguistics, is deixis reference to a participant in an event, such as the speaker, the addressee, or others. Grammatical person typically defines a language's set of personal pronouns....
or number

Grammatical number

In linguistics, grammatical number is a grammatical category of nouns, pronouns, and adjective and verb agreement that expresses count distinctions ....
, and pronouns

Irish morphology

The morphology of Irish language is in some respects typical of an Indo-European languages. Nouns are declined for grammatical number, and declension, and verbs for grammatical person and number....
appear in the disjunctive form.

The copula, which has the realis form , is used for identification and definition:

Definition: X is a Y. Here, the word order is "Is-Y-(pronoun)-X". X is a definite noun or a pronoun.

"It/he is a man."

"They're English (people)."

Identification: X is the Y. Here the word order is "Is-pronoun-X-Y", or "Is-pronoun-Y-X". Note that there must always be a pronoun between a definite noun and the copula. It would be wrong to say *Is Seán an múinteoir, which would mean "The teacher is a (!) Seán".

"Seán is the teacher."

If we want to identify a first or second person pronoun with a definite noun, it is usual to use the longer form of the personal pronoun, which comes immediately after the copula:

"I am the teacher."

"You are the student."

"We are the teachers."

"You are the students."

The long form of the personal pronoun is very emphatic and stressed, and often knocks out the copula entirely. Thus, in the previous four examples it is possible to leave out the copula, which will then be understood:

The name of a renowned poem by Patrick Pearse

Patrick Pearse

Patrick Henry Pearse was a teacher, barrister, Irish poetry, writer, nationalist and political activist who was one of the leaders of the Easter Rising in 1916....
, , is another example.

If we identify a third-person pronoun with a definite noun, it is entirely possible to use the same construction:

"He is the teacher."

"She is the student."

"They are the soldiers".

However, in the third person this usage is perceived to be much more emphatic than in the first and second persons. The usual way to say "He is the teacher" is

where the definite noun is flanked by two personal pronouns agreeing with it in gender and number.

When saying "this is", or "that is", and are used, in which case is usually dropped:

"This is my mother."

"That's the teacher."

The copula can also be dropped before pronouns:

"I am Ireland."

One can also add "that is in him/her/it", especially when using an adjective, when it is desired to emphasise the quality:

"He's a strong man."

(Literally: "It is a strong man that is in him.")

"She's a beautiful girl."

(Literally: "It is a beautiful girl that is in her.")

This sometimes appears in Hiberno-English

Hiberno-English

Hiberno-English also known as Anglo-Irish and Irish English is English language as spoken in Ireland, partly the result of the interaction of the English and Irish languages....
, either translated literally as "that is in it", or as "so it is".

The present tense of the copula can also have future meaning.

"He will be a teacher."

The past tense of the copula can also have conditional meaning.

"She would be a teacher."

The forms and are not used after preverbal particles

Irish verbs

"Are you a teacher?"

"We were not teachers."

If the predicate is definite, the copula is followed by a disjunctive personal pronoun, which may be repeated at the end of the sentence.

"Siobhán is the teacher."

"Those people are the teachers."

"He is the teacher."

If the predicate is indefinite, it follows the copula directly, with the disjunctive pronoun and subject coming at the end.

"I am a student."

"Cáit is a teacher."

The predicate of the copula can also be an adjective; in this case, the subject is a definite noun.


COP	nice	the day	it
'It's a nice day.'

Topicalization

Topic (linguistics)

Clefting

A cleft sentence is a sentence formed by a main clause and a subordinate clause, which together express a meaning that could be expressed by a simple sentence....
, i.e. by fronting the topicalized element as the predicate of the copula, while the rest of the sentence becomes a relative clause. Compare "I said it" with "I said it; I'm the one who said it."

Other uses for the copula

There are other set idiomatic phrases using the copula, as seen in the following examples. Here the predicate consists mostly of either a prepositional phrase or an adjective.

"I like" lit. "is good with me"

"I would like" lit. "would be good with me"

"I prefer" lit. "is better with me"

"I can" lit. "is possible with me"

"one shouldn't" lit. "would not be right"

"one should" lit. "would be right"

"I hate" lit. "is hatred with me"

"I don't care" lit. "is indifferent with me"

"I wish/would like" lit. "is desire with me"

"I remember" lit. "is memory with me"

Also the following constructions:


COP	difficult	this sentence	to understand
"This sentence is hard to understand."


COP	with Cáit	the car
"The car belongs to Cáit."


COP	from Dublin	Máire
"Máire is from Dublin."

Answering questions with the copula

Since the copula cannot stand alone, the answer must contain either a part of the predicate or a pronoun, both of which follow the copula.

"Is Seán the teacher?"

"—Yes." "—No."

"Is Seán a teacher?"

"—Yes." "—No."

Omission of

In all dialects, the copula may be omitted if the predicate is a noun. ( cannot be deleted.) If is omitted, the following preceding the noun is omitted as well.

"I am the teacher."

"Seán is the teacher."

"I am a student."

Comparison of the existential verb and the copula

Both the existential verb and the copula may take a nominal predicate, but the two constructions have slightly different meanings: sounds more permanent—it represents something absolute about Seán; it is a permanent characteristic of Seán that he is a doctor. This is known as an individual-level predicate. In the sentence , one says rather that Seán performs the job of a doctor, that he is a doctor at the moment, that he has become a doctor. This is known as a stage-level predicate.

Subordination

Most complementizers (subordinating conjunctions) in Irish cause eclipsis and require the dependent form

Dependent and independent verb forms

In the Goidelic languages, dependent and independent verb forms are distinct verb forms used either with a preceding grammatical particle or, usually, without one ....
of irregular verbs. The word order in an Irish subordinate clause is the same as in a main clause. The types of subordination discussed here are: complementation, relative clauses, and wh-questions (which are formed as a kind of relative clause in Irish).

Complementation

Syntactic complementation

The subordinate clause is a part of the main clause in a purely syntactic complementation. In Irish it is introduced by "that" in the positive and "that... not" in the negative.


he says	that	is	hurry	upon-him
"He says that he's in a hurry."


he proved	that not	was	ghost	there
"He proved that there was no ghost."

Other examples of complex sentence

Complex sentence

A complex sentence is a sentence with an independent clause and at least one dependent clause . The dependent clause is introduced by either a subordinate conjunction such as although, or because or a relative pronoun such as who or which....
s using complementizers:

"People were afraid of him because he was quick-tempered."
"I don't believe it although I see it."
"She wrote it down so that she wouldn't forget it."
"Wait until he comes."

Conditional complementation

A conditional clause gives the condition under which something will happen. In Irish there are two kinds of conditional clauses, depending on the plausibility of the condition. The particle introduces a conditional clause that is plausible, also called a realis condition
Conditional sentence

In grammar, conditional sentences are sentence discussing fact implications or hypothesis situations and their Material conditional. Languages use a variety of conditional constructions and verb forms to form these kinds of sentences....
. causes lenition and takes the independent form of irregular verbs. Its negated form is and causes eclipsis. Preceding the preterite it is and causes lenition.

If the condition of the clause is hypothetical, also called an irrealis condition
Conditional sentence

In grammar, conditional sentences are sentence discussing fact implications or hypothesis situations and their Material conditional. Languages use a variety of conditional constructions and verb forms to form these kinds of sentences....
or counterfactual conditional
Counterfactual conditional

A counterfactual conditional, subjunctive conditional, or remote conditional, is a conditional sentence indicating what would be the case if its antecedent were true....
, the word is used, which causes eclipsis and takes the dependent form of irregular verbs. The negated equivalent is either or , meaning roughly "if it were not the case that...". The verb in both clauses is in the conditional.

"If he believes that story he is pretty gullible." (realis)
"If he didn't lose it, then he stole it." (realis)
"If I left it to you, you wouldn't do it." (irrealis)

Other examples of conditionals are:

"The venture will succeed provided that all take part in it."
"You may break it provided that you pay for it."

Relative clauses

Direct relative

There are two kinds of relative clauses in Irish: direct and indirect. Direct relative clauses begin with the leniting relative pronoun

Relative pronoun

A relative pronoun is a pronoun that marks a relative clause within a larger Sentence . It is called a relative pronoun because it relates to the word that it modifies....
and the independent form of an irregular verb is used. The direct relative is used when the relative pronoun is the subject or direct object of its clause.

"The people who were unhappy went overseas."
"That's the work that I did."

The direct relative is also used in topicalizations, e.g.:

"It's Jimmy who went to America."

The direct relative is also used after the word "time":

"the first time that I was there"

Indirect relative

Indirect relative clauses begin with the eclipsing relativizer

Relativizer

In linguistics, a relativizer is a grammatical element used to indicate a relative clause. Not all languages use relativizers; most Indo-European languages use relative pronouns instead, and some languages, such as Relative_clause#Japanese, rely solely on word order to indicate relative clauses....
(in the preterite with leniting ); the dependent form of an irregular verb is used. The indirect relative is used to signify a genitive or the object of a preposition. In these cases, there is a resumptive pronoun

Resumptive pronoun

Resumptive pronoun is a pronoun in a relative clause which refers to the antecedent of the relative clause. The slight majority of world languages use resumptive pronouns instead of gaps in relative clauses....
in the relative clause.

"the man whose sister was in the hospital" (lit. "the man that his sister was in the hospital")
"the man whose daughter gave him a hundred pounds" or "the man to whom his daughter gave a hundred pounds" (lit. "the man that his daughter gave him a hundred pounds")
"the room that I slept in" (lit. "the room that I slept in it")

The negative form of a relative clause, direct or indirect, is formed with the eclipsing relativizer , or, before the preterite, with the leniting relativizer .

"That's something I don't understand." (direct)
"a woman whose son isn't working" (indirect; lit. "a woman that her son isn't working")

Sometimes a direct relative clause can be ambiguous in meaning, leaving unclear if the relative is accusative or nominative:

"the priest who kissed the woman" or "the priest whom the woman kissed"

If the accusative reading is intended, one could use an indirect relative with a resumptive pronoun

Resumptive pronoun

"the priest whom the woman kissed" (lit. "the priest that the woman kissed him")

Wh-questions

A wh-question begins with a word such as "who, what, how, when, where, why" etc. In Irish, such questions are constructed as relative clauses, in that they can be constructed as either direct or indirect.

Direct relative wh-questions

Questions with "who, what, how many, which, when" are constructed as direct relative clauses.

"When did it happen?"
"Who did it?"
"What did you get?"
"How many miles did you walk?"
"Which is more expensive, meat or fish?"

Indirect relative wh-questions

Questions with prepositions (i.e. "on what?, with whom?") and questions with "why?" and "where?" are constructed as indirect relative clauses.

"Who has the money?" (lit. "who with him is the money")
"What did you lift the car with?" (lit. "what with it did you lift the car")
"Why did you hit him?"
"Where did you see the woman?"

Clauses introduced by "how"

There are two words for "how" in Irish: the word takes the direct relative clause, the phrase takes the indirect.

"How did it happen?"
"How does that concern you?/What business is that of yours?"

Complementary subordinate clauses in the form of a relative clause

Some complements in Irish take the form of a relative, in that they end in the relative particle ; both direct and indirect relative are found.

Direct

"When I was young, I lived in Donegal."
"She will call as soon as she gets home."
"He was crying while he was talking to me."
"Then a melody was played, as one often did ."
"He moved his head as if he were playing music."
"You may hold it as long as you are careful with it."

Indirect

"Look for them where you put them."
"Stay where you are!"
"By the time he came, they were all sold out."
"I will tell him that as soon as I see him."
"She left it as it was."