Iranian Constitutional Revolution
Encyclopedia
The Persian Constitutional Revolution or Iranian Constitutional Revolution (Persian
:مشروطيت, Transliteration: Mashrutiyyat or Enghelab e Mashruteh) (also known as the Constitutional Revolution of Iran) took place between 1905 and 1907. The revolution led to the establishment of a parliament
in Persia (Iran
).
The Persian Constitutional Revolution was the first event of its kind in Asia
. The Revolution opened the way for cataclysmic change in Persia, heralding the modern era. It saw a period of unprecedented debate in a burgeoning press. The revolution created new opportunities and opened up seemingly boundless possibilities for Persia’s future. Many different groups fought to shape the course of the Revolution, and all sections of society were ultimately to be in some way changed by it. The old order, which Nasser-al-Din Shah Qajar had struggled for so long to sustain, finally died, to be replaced by new institutions, new forms of expression, and a new social and political order.
The system of constitutional monarchy created by the decree of Mozzafar-al-Din Shah that was established in Persia as a result of the Revolution ultimately came to an end in 1925 with the dissolution of the Qajar dynasty and the ascension of Reza Shah Pahlavi to the throne.
The movement did not end with the Revolution but was followed by the Constitutionalist movement of Gilan
.
Weakness and extravagance continued during the brief reign of Mozaffar al-Din Shah Qajar (1896–1907). He often relied on his chancellor to manage his decentralized state. His dire financial situation caused him to sign many concessions to foreign powers, on an expanding list of trade items ranging from weapons to tobacco. The established noble classes, religious authorities, and educated elite began to demand a curb on royal authority and the establishment of the rule of law as their concern over foreign, and especially Russian, influence grew.
He had also taken out several major loans from Russia and Britain to pay for his extravagant lifestyle and the costs of the central government. In 1900 the Shah financed a royal tour of Europe by borrowing 22 million rubles from Russia. Iranian customs receipts served as collateral.
The two protesting groups sought sanctuary in a mosque in Tehran, but the government violated this sanctuary and entered the mosque and dispersed the group. This violation of the sanctity of the mosque created an even larger movement which sought refuge in a shrine outside Tehran. On January 12, 1906 the Shah capitulated to the demonstrators agreeing to dismiss his prime minister and to surrender power to a new "house of justice," (the forerunner to the parliament). The Basti (protesters who take sanctuary in mosques) returned from the mosque in triumph, riding royal carriages and being hailed by a jubilant crowd.
In a scuffle in early 1906 the Government killed a seyyed (descendant of the prophet Muhhamed). A more deadly skirmish followed a short time later when Cossacks killed 22 protesters and injured 100. Bazaar again closed and the Ulama went on strike, a large number of them taking sanctuary in the holy city Qom. Many merchants went to the British embassy which agreed to offer protection to Basti in the grounds of their legation.
October 1906 marked the first meeting of parliament, who immediately gave themselves the right to make a constitution, thereby becoming a Constitutional Assembly. The Shah was getting old and sick, and attending the inauguration of the parliament was one of his last acts as king. Muzaffar ed-Din Shah's son Muhammed Ali, however, was not privy to constitutionalism. Therefore they had to work fast, and by December 31, 1906 the Shah signed the constitution, modeled primarily from the Belgian Constitution. The Shah was from there on "under the rule of law, and the crown became a divine gift given to the Shah by the people." Mozafaredeen Shah died five days later.
The following January Shah Muhammad Ali, the 6th Qajar shah, came to power. He moved to "exploit the divisions within the ranks of the reformers" and eliminate the Majlis. In August 1907 an Anglo-Russian agreement divided Iran into a Russian zone in the North and a British zone in the South. The British switch their support to Shah, abandoning the Constitutionalists.
In summary (to be expanded):
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Persian language
Persian is an Iranian language within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan and countries which historically came under Persian influence...
:مشروطيت, Transliteration: Mashrutiyyat or Enghelab e Mashruteh) (also known as the Constitutional Revolution of Iran) took place between 1905 and 1907. The revolution led to the establishment of a parliament
Majlis of Iran
The National Consultative Assembly of Iran , also called The Iranian Parliament or People's House, is the national legislative body of Iran...
in Persia (Iran
Iran
Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
).
The Persian Constitutional Revolution was the first event of its kind in Asia
Asia
Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area and with approximately 3.879 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population...
. The Revolution opened the way for cataclysmic change in Persia, heralding the modern era. It saw a period of unprecedented debate in a burgeoning press. The revolution created new opportunities and opened up seemingly boundless possibilities for Persia’s future. Many different groups fought to shape the course of the Revolution, and all sections of society were ultimately to be in some way changed by it. The old order, which Nasser-al-Din Shah Qajar had struggled for so long to sustain, finally died, to be replaced by new institutions, new forms of expression, and a new social and political order.
The system of constitutional monarchy created by the decree of Mozzafar-al-Din Shah that was established in Persia as a result of the Revolution ultimately came to an end in 1925 with the dissolution of the Qajar dynasty and the ascension of Reza Shah Pahlavi to the throne.
The movement did not end with the Revolution but was followed by the Constitutionalist movement of Gilan
Constitutionalist movement of Gilan
The Jangal movement, in Gilan, was a rebellion against the monarchist rule of the Qajar central government of Iran. It is considered as the extension of Constitutional Revolution of Iran and lasted from 1914 to 1921.-History of the movement:...
.
Context
He had also taken out several major loans from Russia and Britain to pay for his extravagant lifestyle and the costs of the central government. In 1900 the Shah financed a royal tour of Europe by borrowing 22 million rubles from Russia. Iranian customs receipts served as collateral.
First protests
In 1905 protests broke out over the collection of Persia tariffs to pay back the Russian loan for Mozzafar-al-Din Shah's royal tour. In December 1905, two Persian merchants were punished in Tehran for charging exorbitant prices. They were bastinadoed (a humiliating and very painful punishment where the soles of one's feet are caned) in public. An uprising of the merchant class in Tehran ensued, with merchants closing the bazaar. The clergy following suit as a result of the alliance formed in the 1892 Tobacco Rebellion.The two protesting groups sought sanctuary in a mosque in Tehran, but the government violated this sanctuary and entered the mosque and dispersed the group. This violation of the sanctity of the mosque created an even larger movement which sought refuge in a shrine outside Tehran. On January 12, 1906 the Shah capitulated to the demonstrators agreeing to dismiss his prime minister and to surrender power to a new "house of justice," (the forerunner to the parliament). The Basti (protesters who take sanctuary in mosques) returned from the mosque in triumph, riding royal carriages and being hailed by a jubilant crowd.
In a scuffle in early 1906 the Government killed a seyyed (descendant of the prophet Muhhamed). A more deadly skirmish followed a short time later when Cossacks killed 22 protesters and injured 100. Bazaar again closed and the Ulama went on strike, a large number of them taking sanctuary in the holy city Qom. Many merchants went to the British embassy which agreed to offer protection to Basti in the grounds of their legation.
Creation of the constitution
In the summer of 1906 approximately 12,000 men camped out in the gardens of the British Embassy. Many gave speeches, many more listened, in what has been called a `vast open-air school of political science` studying constitutionalism. It is here that the demand for a parliament was born, the goal of which was to limit the power of the Shah. In August 1906, Mozaffareddin Shah agreed to allow a parliament, and in the fall, the first elections were held. In all, 156 members were elected, with an overwhelming majority coming from Tehran and the merchant class.October 1906 marked the first meeting of parliament, who immediately gave themselves the right to make a constitution, thereby becoming a Constitutional Assembly. The Shah was getting old and sick, and attending the inauguration of the parliament was one of his last acts as king. Muzaffar ed-Din Shah's son Muhammed Ali, however, was not privy to constitutionalism. Therefore they had to work fast, and by December 31, 1906 the Shah signed the constitution, modeled primarily from the Belgian Constitution. The Shah was from there on "under the rule of law, and the crown became a divine gift given to the Shah by the people." Mozafaredeen Shah died five days later.
Aftermath
Within the decade following the establishment of the new majles a number of critical events took place. Many of these events can be viewed as a continuation of the struggle between the constitutionalists and the Shahs of Persia, many of whom were backed by foreign powers against the majles.The following January Shah Muhammad Ali, the 6th Qajar shah, came to power. He moved to "exploit the divisions within the ranks of the reformers" and eliminate the Majlis. In August 1907 an Anglo-Russian agreement divided Iran into a Russian zone in the North and a British zone in the South. The British switch their support to Shah, abandoning the Constitutionalists.
In summary (to be expanded):
- Persia tried to keep free from Russian influence through resistance via the majles to the Shah's policies.
- Majles brought in Morgan ShusterMorgan ShusterWilliam Morgan Shuster , American lawyer, civil servant, and publisher, who is best known as the treasurer-general of Persia by appointment of the Iranian parliament, or Majles, from May to December 1911.-Background:Shuster was born in Washington, DC and educated in the Columbian University and Law...
to reform treasury against initial desires of Russia and the Shah. Russia expelled him. - Reza ShahReza ShahRezā Shāh, also known as Rezā Shāh Pahlavi and Rezā Shāh Kabir , , was the Shah of the Imperial State of Iran from December 15, 1925, until he was forced to abdicate by the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran on September 16, 1941.In 1925, Reza Shah overthrew Ahmad Shah Qajar, the last Shah of the Qajar...
seized power and curtailed the power of the majles. He effectively turned it into a rubber stamp organization.
Notable individuals
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- Mirza Nasrullah KhanMirza Nasrullah KhanMirza Nasrullah Khan Naini , titled Moshir al Dowleh, was the first Iranian Prime Minister. He became Iranian Prime Minister following the introduction of the Persian Constitution of 1906. He established Iran's first legitimate government approved by the Majlis on 7 October 1906...
- First Elected Prime Minister of Iran. - Mirza Jahangir Khan - FoTHISN WILL BE IN THE ASANHE DVYDJS USVHHSGTD HDJIDB7D BUT BFBFBUD under and Editor of the HB WHRE YTOY SAY THAT WILL NOT BE IN THE SAN EWAY BFDUFBUSBUSYUS S UJSGUSVUSSur-e Esrafil newspaper.
- Malek al-Motakallemin (see Mirza Jahangir Khan)
- Mirza Sayyed Mohammad TabatabaiMirza Sayyed Mohammad TabatabaiAyatollah Mirzā Sayyed Mohammad Tabātabā'i was one of the leaders of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution who played an important role in the establishment of democracy and rule of law in Iran...
- Seyed Jamal VaezSayyid Jamal al-Din Va'izSayyid Jamal al-Din "Va'iz" Esfahani - was a popular pro-constitutional preacher and writer in Persia. He was one of the founders of a constitutional movement in Isfahan in 1890s. He wrote for the reformist newspapers - especially for "Al Jamal"...
- Morgan ShusterMorgan ShusterWilliam Morgan Shuster , American lawyer, civil servant, and publisher, who is best known as the treasurer-general of Persia by appointment of the Iranian parliament, or Majles, from May to December 1911.-Background:Shuster was born in Washington, DC and educated in the Columbian University and Law...
- Sayyid hossein ArdabiliSayyid hossein ArdabiliSayyid Hossein Ardabili was an Iranian politician.He and completed his primary education with professor Mirza Mohammad Ali Mirakhor Oghlu in Ardabil.He went to Mashhad via Ghafghaz and acquainted with its liberals and was one of the gifted students in Mashhad.There, he founded Khorasan magazine...
- Member of Demokrat party in Tehran and Mashhad. - Aref Ghazvini
- Mirza Ali Shirazi
- Ali Akbar DehkhodaAli Akbar DehkhodaAllameh Ali Akbar Dehkhoda was a prominent Iranian linguist, and author of the most extensive dictionary of the Persian language ever published.-Biography:...
- Sattar KhanSattar KhanSattar Khan Sattar Khan Sattar Khan (Persian/Azeri: ستارخان, ; (October 20, 1866—November 17, 1914), honorarily titled Sardār-e Melli was a pivotal figure in the Iranian Constitutional Revolution and is one of the greatest heroes of Iran.Sattar Khan,...
- One of the main leaders of the revolutionary movement. - Haj Baba Khan-e-FESGSUFVJUASJJS VDBUFBD Ardabili - Hero of Iranian ConCONSTIIOUTTTOONB AND THAT IS NOT THE ONLY PEOPSON THAT AI WIKL PROPR BALY GO OUT WITH OK NOW BYE BYW EBYE
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- BagheGFSJSJSr KhanBUT WHEN PEOPLE AVA IDB HDVGD FTHE THE THEB UEWPOPKLONEE TOQOPWN I LOVE YOU I LOVE YOPU I LOVE YPU LOIDONVE RIOYNIY*Mirza Kuchak KhanMirza Kuchak KhanMīrzā Kūchik Khān was an early twentieth century revolutionary and is considered a national hero in modern Iranian history...
- Founder of a revolutionary movement based in the forests of Gilan. - Mirza Malkom Khan
- Yeprem KhanYeprem KhanYeprem Khan Davidian , also Yefrem Khan, was an Armenian revolutionary leader and national hero of Persia...
- Armenian Iranian revolutionary leader. Wounded Sattar KhanSattar KhanSattar Khan Sattar Khan Sattar Khan (Persian/Azeri: ستارخان, ; (October 20, 1866—November 17, 1914), honorarily titled Sardār-e Melli was a pivotal figure in the Iranian Constitutional Revolution and is one of the greatest heroes of Iran.Sattar Khan,...
in the course of disarming the revolutionaries in Tehran as commander of Tehran's police force during the interim constitutionalist government. - Sardar AssadSardar AssadSardar As'ad Bakhtiari , also known as Haj Ali-Gholi Khan, Sardar Asad II was an Iranian revolutionary, a leader of Bakhtiari Haft Lang tribe, and one of the primary figures of the Persian Constitutional Revolution...
- Bakhtiari tribal leader whose forces captured Tehran in 1909 for the constitutional movement. - Bibi Khatoon AstarabadiBibi Khatoon AstarabadiBibi Khānoom Astarābādi was a notable Iranian writer, satirist, and one of the pioneering figures in the women's movement of Iran....
- Satirist, writer and one of the pioneers in Iranian women's movement. - Hassan PirniaHassan PirniaHassan Pirnia was a prominent politician of twentieth century Iran. He held a total of twenty-four posts during his political career, serving four times as Prime Minister.His father was Mirza Nasrullah Khan, a Prime Minister during the Qajar era...
- Ahmad KasraviAhmad KasraviAhmad Kasravi , was a notable Iranian linguist, historian, and reformer.Born in Hokmabad , Tabriz, Iran, Kasravi was an Iranian Azeri Initially, Kasravi enrolled in a seminary. Later, he joined the Iranian Constitutional Revolution...
- Haj Seyyed Mohammad Sarraf - merchant and banker from the Alavi family of Tehran. One of the leaders of the Democratic Party. Deputee to the first Majles for the bankers of Tehran and deputee to the fourth Majles for the people of Tehran. His brother was Haj Seyyed Javad Khazaneh, treasurer of Mozaffar ed-Din Shah at the time of the constitutional revolution and his grandson was the famous writer Bozorg Alavi.
- Mohammad Taghi BaharMohammad Taghi BaharMohammad-Taqí Bahār , widely known as Malek o-Sho'arā and Malek o-Sho'arā Bahār , is a renowned Iranian poet and scholar, who was also a politician, journalist, historian and Professor of Literature...
- Sayyed Hasan Taqizadeh
- Mirza Abdul'Rahim Talibov TabriziMirza Abdul'Rahim Talibov TabriziMirzā Abdul'Rahim Tālibov Najjār Tabrizi was an Iranian Azerbaijani intellectual and social reformer. He was born in the Sorkhab district of Tabriz, Iran...
- Intellectual and social reformer. - Abdolhossein Teymourtash
- Abdol-Hossein Mirza Farmanfarma
- Sepahsalar Tonekaboni - Leader of the constitutionalists revolutionary forces from the northern provinces of Gilan and Mazandaran, was the first to arrive in Tehran and liberate the city from the Royalist forces and became the first leader of the constitutionalist government.
- Howard BaskervilleHoward BaskervilleHoward Conklin Baskerville was an American teacher in the Presbyterian mission school in Tabriz, Iran, who died fighting for Iranian democracy. He has been called the "American Lafayette in Iran." ...
- American Teacher who fought alongside the Constitutionalists. - Mohammed Mosaddeq - Liberal Nationalist and future Prime Minister of Iran.
- Morteza Gholi Khan HedayatMorteza Gholi Khan HedayatMorteza Gholi Khan, Sani-ol Douleh of the Hedayat family, son of Ali Gholi Khan , was an Iranian politician and first chairman of the Iranian parliament. He become Member of Parliament from Tehran after Persian Constitutional Revolution. He was a leader of Constitutional Revolution...
Monarchists
- Mozaffar al-Din Shah Qajar - Shah of Persia who signed the constitution, thereby creating a constitutional monarchy.
- Mohammad Ali Shah - Son of Mozaffar al-Din Shah. Attempted to crush the constitution.
- Prince Sultan Abdol Majid MirzaAbdol Majid MirzaSoltan Abdol Majid Mirza Eyn-ed-Dowleh , Qajar prince and Prime Minister, was the eldest son of Prince Soltan Ahmad Mirza Azod ed-Dowleh and grandson of Fat'h Ali Shah Qajar.-References:...
- Sheikh Fazlollah NuriSheikh Fazlollah NooriSheikh Fazlollah Noori was a prominent Shiite Muslim cleric in Iran during the late 19th and early 20th century who fought against the Iranian Constitutional Revolution and was executed for treason as a result...
- a cleric who backed the king and stood against the constitutional revolution. After the victory of the ICM he was hanged. - Vladimir LiakhovVladimir LiakhovPolkovnik Vladimir Platonovitch Liakhov was the commander of Persian Cossack Brigade during the rule of Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar. He gained considerable notoriety after shelling the Majlis of Iran and executed several constitutionalist leaders on June 24, 1908...
- a Russian colonel and Commander of the Persian Cossack BrigadePersian Cossack BrigadeThe Persian Cossack Brigade was an elite cavalry unit formed in 1879 in Iran. During much of their history they were the only functional, effective military unit of the Qajar Dynasty...
during the rule of Mohammad Ali Shah QajarMohammad Ali Shah QajarMohammad Ali Shah Qajar was the Shah of Persia from 8 January 1907 to 16 July 1909.-Biography:He was against the constitution that was ratified during the reign of his father, Mozzafar-al-Din Shah...
. He shelled and subsequently laid siege to the seat of the Majlis of IranMajlis of IranThe National Consultative Assembly of Iran , also called The Iranian Parliament or People's House, is the national legislative body of Iran...
. - Arfa' ed-Dawlah
- Hossein Qoli Khan Hedayat Mokhber ed-Dowleh II (1848–1916)
Religious figures
- Mohammad-Kazem Khorasani, constitutionalist.
- Sayyed Jamal ad-Din EsfahaniSayyid Jamal al-Din Va'izSayyid Jamal al-Din "Va'iz" Esfahani - was a popular pro-constitutional preacher and writer in Persia. He was one of the founders of a constitutional movement in Isfahan in 1890s. He wrote for the reformist newspapers - especially for "Al Jamal"...
, constitutionalist. - Malek al-Motakallemin (http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Malek_al-Motakallemin.jpg), constitutionalist (see Mirza Jahangir Khan and Mohammad-Ali JamalzadehMohammad Ali JamalzadehMohammad-Ali Jamālzādeh Esfahani , was one of the most prominent writers of Iran in the 20th century, best known for his unique style of humour...
). - Sayyed Abdullah Behbahani (:Image:Sayyed Abdullah Behbahani.jpg), constitutionalist (see Sayyed Hasan Taqizadeh).
- Mirza Sayyed Mohammad TabatabaiMirza Sayyed Mohammad TabatabaiAyatollah Mirzā Sayyed Mohammad Tabātabā'i was one of the leaders of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution who played an important role in the establishment of democracy and rule of law in Iran...
, constitutionalist. - Mirza Hosein Na'ini, constitutionalist.
- Mohammed Kazem YazdiMohammed Kazem YazdiMohammed Kazem Yazdi was a prominent Shia Islamic scholar centered in Najaf, most famous for his anti-constitutionalist stand during the Iranian Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1911...
, anti-constitutionalist. - Sheikh Fazlollah NuriSheikh Fazlollah NooriSheikh Fazlollah Noori was a prominent Shiite Muslim cleric in Iran during the late 19th and early 20th century who fought against the Iranian Constitutional Revolution and was executed for treason as a result...
, anti-constitutionalist. - Mirza Abutaleb ZanjaniMirza Abutaleb ZanjaniMirzā Abutāleb Zanjānī also known as Sayyid Fakhr al-Din Mohammad Abutāleb Mousavi al-Zanjānī Iranian Jurist and Shia scholar...
, anti-constitutionalist.
See also
- Constitutionalist movement of GilanConstitutionalist movement of GilanThe Jangal movement, in Gilan, was a rebellion against the monarchist rule of the Qajar central government of Iran. It is considered as the extension of Constitutional Revolution of Iran and lasted from 1914 to 1921.-History of the movement:...
- Intellectual Movements in IranIntellectual movements in IranIntellectual movements in Iran involve the Iranian experience of modernity and its associated art, science, literature, poetry, and political structures that have been changing since the 19th century.- History of Iranian modernity :...
- History of the Iranian Constitutional RevolutionHistory of the Iranian Constitutional RevolutionHistory of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution by the Iranian historian Ahmad Kasravi is the most accurate account of the Persian Constitutional Revolution. The book chronicles the event and the ensuing struggle of the revolution that took place between 1905 to 1911 in Persia .The book was...
by Ahmad KasraviAhmad KasraviAhmad Kasravi , was a notable Iranian linguist, historian, and reformer.Born in Hokmabad , Tabriz, Iran, Kasravi was an Iranian Azeri Initially, Kasravi enrolled in a seminary. Later, he joined the Iranian Constitutional Revolution... - Persian Tobacco Movement
- Iranian Revolution of 1979Iranian RevolutionThe Iranian Revolution refers to events involving the overthrow of Iran's monarchy under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and its replacement with an Islamic republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the...
- White RevolutionWhite RevolutionThe White Revolution was a far-reaching series of reforms in Iran launched in 1963 by the Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Mohammad Reza Shah’s reform program was built especially to strengthen those classes that supported the traditional system...
- History of IranHistory of IranThe history of Iran has been intertwined with the history of a larger historical region, comprising the area from the Danube River in the west to the Indus River and Jaxartes in the east and from the Caucasus, Caspian Sea, and Aral Sea in the north to the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman and Egypt...
- Morgan ShusterMorgan ShusterWilliam Morgan Shuster , American lawyer, civil servant, and publisher, who is best known as the treasurer-general of Persia by appointment of the Iranian parliament, or Majles, from May to December 1911.-Background:Shuster was born in Washington, DC and educated in the Columbian University and Law...
- List of conflicts in the Middle East
Further reading
- Mangol Bayat, Iran’s First Revolution: Shi’ism and the Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1909, Studies in Middle Eastern History, 336 p. (Oxford University Press, 1991). ISBN 0-19-506822-X
- Browne, Edward G., "The Persian Revolution of 1905-1909", Mage Publishers (July 1995). ISBN 0-934211-45-0
- Afary, Janet, "The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906-1911", Columbia University Press. 1996. ISBN 0-231-10351-4
- Foran, John. "The Strengths and Weaknesses of Iran’s Populist Alliance: A Class Analysis of the Constitutional Revolution of 1905 - 1911", Theory and Society, Vol. 20, No. 6 (Dec 1991), pp. 795–823. JSTOR
External links
- Reza Jamāli in conversation with Dr Abbās Amānat, Professor of History and International and Area Studies at University of Yale, in Persian, Radio Zamaneh, August 7, 2008, http://www.radiozamaaneh.com/jamali/2008/08/print_post_17.html. Audio recording: http://www.zamahang.com/podcast/2008/20080805_Reza_Abas_Ashraf_Mashroteh.mp3.
- Shokā Sahrāi, Photographs of the Constitutional Revolution of Iran, in Persian, Jadid Online, 2007, http://www.jadidonline.com/story/07082007/az/mashruteh_photos.
Slide Show, narrated by Dr Bāqer Āqeli, Jadid Online, 2007: http://www.jadidonline.com/images/stories/flash_multimedia/Mashrouteh_Agheli_test/Agheli_high.html (4 min 30 sec). - Constitutional Revolution of Iran