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Investment management

Overview

Investment management is the professional management of various securities (shares, bonds and other securities) and asset

Asset

In financial accounting, assets are economic resources. Anything tangible or intangible that is capable of being owned or controlled to produce value and that is held to have positive economic value is considered an asset...

s (e.g., real estate

Real estate

In general use, esp. North American, 'real estate' is taken to mean "Property consisting of land and the buildings on it, along with its natural resources such as crops, minerals, or water; immovable property of this nature; an interest vested in this; an item of real property; buildings or...

) in order to meet specified investment goals for the benefit of the investors. Investors may be institutions (insurance companies, pension funds, corporations, charities, educational establishments etc.) or private investors (both directly via investment contracts and more commonly via collective investment scheme

Collective investment scheme

A collective investment scheme is a way of investing money alongside other investors in order to benefit from the inherent advantages of working as part of a group...

s e.g. mutual funds or exchange-traded fund

Exchange-traded fund

An exchange-traded fund is an investment fund traded on stock exchanges, much like stocks. An ETF holds assets such as stocks, commodities, or bonds, and trades close to its net asset value over the course of the trading day. Most ETFs track an index, such as the S&P 500 or MSCI EAFE...

s).

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Portfolio Management

Encyclopedia

Investment management is the professional management of various securities (shares, bonds and other securities) and asset

Asset

s (e.g., real estate

Real estate

Collective investment scheme

A collective investment scheme is a way of investing money alongside other investors in order to benefit from the inherent advantages of working as part of a group...

s e.g. mutual funds or exchange-traded fund

Exchange-traded fund

s).

The term asset management is often used to refer to the investment management of collective investments, (not necessarily) while the more generic fund management may refer to all forms of institutional investment as well as investment management for private investors. Investment managers who specialize in advisory or discretionary management on behalf of (normally wealthy) private investors may often refer to their services as wealth management or portfolio management often within the context of so-called "private banking

Private banking

Private banking is banking, investment and other financial services provided by banks to private individuals investing sizable assets. The term "private" refers to the customer service being rendered on a more personal basis than in mass-market retail banking, usually via dedicated bank advisers...

".

The provision of 'investment management services' includes elements of financial statement analysis

Financial statement analysis

Financial statement analysis is the process of understanding the risk and profitability of a firm through analysis of reported financial information, particularly annual and quarterly reports....

, asset selection, stock selection, plan implementation and ongoing monitoring of investments.
Investment management is a large and important global industry in its own right responsible for caretaking of trillions of yuan, dollars, euro, pounds and yen. Coming under the remit of financial services

Financial services

Financial services refer to services provided by the finance industry. The finance industry encompasses a broad range of organizations that deal with the management of money. Among these organizations are credit unions, banks, credit card companies, insurance companies, consumer finance companies,...

many of the world's largest companies are at least in part investment managers and employ millions of staff and create billions in revenue.

Fund manager (or investment adviser in the United States) refers to both a firm

Business

A business is an organization engaged in the trade of goods, services, or both to consumers. Businesses are predominant in capitalist economies, where most of them are privately owned and administered to earn profit to increase the wealth of their owners. Businesses may also be not-for-profit...

that provides investment management services and an individual who directs fund management decisions.

Industry scope

The business of investment several facets, the employment of professional fund managers, research (of individual assets and asset classes), dealing, settlement, marketing, internal audit

Internal audit

Internal auditing is an independent, objective assurance and consulting activity designed to add value and improve an organization's operations. It helps an organization accomplish its objectives by bringing a systematic, disciplined approach to evaluate and improve the effectiveness of risk...

ing, and the preparation of reports for clients. The largest financial fund managers are firms that exhibit all the complexity their size demands. Apart from the people who bring in the money (marketers) and the people who direct investment (the fund managers), there are compliance staff (to ensure accord with legislative and regulatory constraints), internal auditors of various kinds (to examine internal systems and controls), financial controllers (to account for the institutions' own money and costs), computer experts, and "back office" employees (to track and record transactions and fund valuations for up to thousands of clients per institution).

Process of investment management

Investment management also known as portfolio management is not a simple activity as it involves many complex steps which is broken down into following steps for a better understanding.

Specification of investment objectives & constrains

Investment needs to be guided by a set of objectives. The main objectives taken into consideration by investors are capital appreciation, current income and safety of principal. The relative importance of each of these objectives needs to be determined. The main aspect that affects the objectives is risk. Some investors are risk takers while others try to reduce risk to the minimum level possible. Identification of constrains arising out of liquidity, time horizon, tax and special situations need to be addressed.

Choice of the asset mix

In investment management the most important decision is with respect to the asset mix decision. It is to do with the proportion of equity shares or shares of equity oriented mutual funds i.e. stocks and proportion of bonds in the portfolio. The combination on the number of stocks and bonds depends upon the risk tolerance of the investor. This step also involves which classes of asset investments will be places and also determines which securities should be purchased in a particular class.

Formulation of portfolio strategy

After the stock – bond combination is chosen, it is important to formulate a suitable portfolio strategy. There are two types of portfolio strategies. The first is an active portfolio strategy which aims to earn greater risk adjusted returns depending on the market timing, sector rotation, security selection or a mix of these. The second strategy is the passive strategy which involves holding a well diversified portfolio and also maintaining a pre-decided level risk.

Selection of securities

Investors usually select stocks after a careful fundamental and technical analysis of the security they are interested in purchasing. In case of bonds credit ratings, liquidity, tax shelter, term of maturity and yield to maturity are factors that are considered.

Portfolio Execution

This step involves implementing the formulated portfolio strategy by buying or selling certain securities in specified amounts. This step is the one which actually affects investment results.

Portfolio Revision

Fluctuation in the prices of stocks and bonds lead to changes in the value of the portfolio and this calls for a rebalancing of the portfolio from time to time. This principally involves shifting from bonds to stocks or vice-versa. Sector rotation and security changes may also be needed.

Performance Evaluation

The assessment of the performance of the portfolio should be done from time to time. It helps the investor to realize if the portfolio return is in proportion with its risk exposure. Along with this it is also necessary to have a benchmark for comparison with other portfolios that have a similar risk exposure.

Key problems of running such businesses

Key problems include:

revenue is directly linked to market valuations, so a major fall in asset prices can cause a precipitous decline in revenues relative to costs;
above-average fund performance is difficult to sustain, and clients may not be patient during times of poor performance;
successful fund managers are expensive and may be headhunted by competitors;
above-average fund performance appears to be dependent on the unique skills of the fund manager; however, clients are loath to stake their investments on the ability of a few individuals- they would rather see firm-wide success, attributable to a single philosophy and internal discipline;
analysts who generate above-average returns often become sufficiently wealthy that they avoid corporate employment in favor of managing their personal portfolios.

Representing the owners of shares

Institutions often control huge shareholdings. In most cases they are acting as fiduciary agents rather than principals (direct owners). The owners of shares theoretically have great power to alter the companies via the voting rights the shares carry and the consequent ability to pressure managements, and if necessary out-vote them at annual and other meetings.

In practice, the ultimate owners of shares often do not exercise the power they collectively hold (because the owners are many, each with small holdings); financial institutions (as agents) sometimes do. There is a general belief that shareholders – in this case, the institutions acting as agents—could and should exercise more active influence over the companies in which they hold shares (e.g., to hold managers to account, to ensure Boards effective functioning). Such action would add a pressure group to those (the regulators and the Board) overseeing management.

However there is the problem of how the institution should exercise this power. One way is for the institution to decide, the other is for the institution to poll its beneficiaries. Assuming that the institution polls, should it then: (i) Vote the entire holding as directed by the majority of votes cast? (ii) Split the vote (where this is allowed) according to the proportions of the vote? (iii) Or respect the abstainers and only vote the respondents' holdings?

The price signals generated by large active managers holding or not holding the stock may contribute to management change. For example, this is the case when a large active manager sells his position in a company, leading to (possibly) a decline in the stock price, but more importantly a loss of confidence by the markets in the management of the company, thus precipitating changes in the management team.

Some institutions have been more vocal and active in pursuing such matters; for instance, some firms believe that there are investment advantages to accumulating substantial minority shareholdings (i.e. 10% or more) and putting pressure on management

Management

Management in all business and organizational activities is the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively...

to implement significant changes in the business. In some cases, institutions with minority holdings work together to force management change. Perhaps more frequent is the sustained pressure that large institutions bring to bear on management teams through persuasive discourse and PR. On the other hand, some of the largest investment managers—such as BlackRock

BlackRock

BlackRock, Inc. is an American multinational investment management corporation and the world's largest asset manager. BlackRock is headquartered in Manhattan, New York City, New York, United States and is the leading provider of investment, advisory, and risk management solutions...

and Vanguard

The Vanguard Group

The Vanguard Group is an American investment management company based in Malvern, Pennsylvania, that manages approximately $1.6 trillion in assets. It offers mutual funds and other financial products and services to individual and institutional investors in the United States and abroad. Founder...

—advocate simply owning every company, reducing the incentive to influence management teams. A reason for this last strategy is that the investment manager prefers a closer, more open and honest relationship with a company's management team than would exist if they exercised control; allowing them to make a better investment decision.

The national context in which shareholder representation considerations are set is variable and important. The USA is a litigious society and shareholders use the law

Law

Law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern behavior, wherever possible. It shapes politics, economics and society in numerous ways and serves as a social mediator of relations between people. Contract law regulates everything from buying a bus...

as a lever to pressure management teams. In Japan it is traditional for shareholders to be low in the 'pecking order,' which often allows management and labor to ignore the rights of the ultimate owners. Whereas US firms generally cater to shareholders, Japanese businesses generally exhibit a stakeholder mentality, in which they seek consensus amongst all interested parties (against a background of strong unions

Trade union

A trade union, trades union or labor union is an organization of workers that have banded together to achieve common goals such as better working conditions. The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with...

and labour legislation

Legislation

Legislation is law which has been promulgated by a legislature or other governing body, or the process of making it...

Size of the global fund management industry

Conventional assets under management

Assets under management

Assets under management is a financial term used denote the market value of funds being managed by a financial instutition on behalf of its clients, investors, depositors, etc. This metric is a sign of size and success against competition...

of the global fund management industry increased by 10% in 2010, to $79.3 trillion. Pension assets accounted for $29.9 trillion of the total, with $24.7 trillion invested in mutual funds and $24.6 trillion in insurance funds. Together with alternative assets (sovereign wealth funds, hedge funds, private equity funds and exchange traded funds) and funds of wealthy individuals, assets of the global fund management industry totalled around $117 trillion. Growth in 2010 followed a 14% increase in the previous year and was due both to the recovery in equity markets during the year and an inflow of new funds.

The US remained by far the biggest source of funds, accounting for around a half of conventional assets under management

Assets under management

or some $36 trillion. The UK was the second largest centre in the world and by far the largest in Europe with around 8% of the global total.

Philosophy, process and people

The 3-P's (Philosophy, Process and People) are often used to describe the reasons why the manager is able to produce above average results.

Philosophy refers to the over-arching beliefs of the investment organization. For example: (i) Does the manager buy growth
Growth investing
Growth investing is a style of investment strategy. Those who follow this style, known as growth investors, invest in companies that exhibit signs of above-average growth, even if the share price appears expensive in terms of metrics such as price-to-earnings or price-to-book ratios...

or value shares, or a combination of the two (and why)? (ii) Do they believe in market timing (and on what evidence)? (iii) Do they rely on external research or do they employ a team of researchers? It is helpful if any and all of such fundamental beliefs are supported by proof-statements.
Process refers to the way in which the overall philosophy is implemented. For example: (i) Which universe of assets is explored before particular assets are chosen as suitable investments? (ii) How does the manager decide what to buy and when? (iii) How does the manager decide what to sell and when? (iv) Who takes the decisions and are they taken by committee? (v) What controls are in place to ensure that a rogue fund (one very different from others and from what is intended) cannot arise?
People refers to the staff, especially the fund managers. The questions are, Who are they? How are they selected? How old are they? Who reports to whom? How deep is the team (and do all the members understand the philosophy and process they are supposed to be using)? And most important of all, How long has the team been working together? This last question is vital because whatever performance record was presented at the outset of the relationship with the client may or may not relate to (have been produced by) a team that is still in place. If the team has changed greatly (high staff turnover or changes to the team), then arguably the performance record is completely unrelated to the existing team (of fund managers).

Investment managers and portfolio structures

At the heart of the investment management industry are the managers who invest and divest client investments.

A certified company investment advisor should conduct an assessment of each client's individual needs and risk profile. The advisor then recommends appropriate investments.

Approaches to investment decision making

The stock market is thronged by investors pursuing diverse investment approaches which may be broadly divided into four categories as follows

Fundamental approach
Psychological approach
Academic approach
Eclectic approach

Fundamental approach

The basic belief of the fundamental approach and commonly used by the majority of investment expert are as follows
We know that security has an intrinsic value and this intrinsic value depends upon the basic economic (fundamental) factors and it can be determined by an insightful analysis of the fundamental factors concerning to the company, industry and economy.
In some cases, at some given period of time the current market value of a security will differ from the intrinsic value of the security. Over the period of time the market price will fall in line with the intrinsic value.
By buying under-valued securities (securities whose intrinsic value is more than its market value) and selling over-valued securities (securities whose intrinsic value is less than its market value) good amount of returns can be earned.

Psychological approach

Psychological mood of an investor is believed to influence the stock price. Therefore it is rightly said that psychological approach is based on the belief that the stock market is not guided by reason but by emotions. Prices rises to great heights when greed and euphoria sweep the market and when the market is surrounded with fear and despair, prices falls drastically.
J.M.Keynes in his book The general theory of employment, interest and money described this phenomenon in eloquent terms. He said:
Since psychic value seems to be more valued than the intrinsic value therefore it is suggested by the psychological approach for a profitable outcome to analyze how investors tend to react as the market is swept by waves of optimism and pessimism.
The ‘castles-in-the-air’ theory by Burton G.Malkiel describes the psychological approach vividly. It is more of a technical analysis which involves study of internal market data and it also concerns in building some trading rules as it beneficial and aimed at profit making. By analyzing the market data one can recognize certain persistent and recurring patterns of price movement. Variety of tools are used in technical analysis such as moving average analysis, point and figure chart, bar chart, breadth of market analysis etc.

Academic Approach

Over the last four- five decades, various aspects of capital structure are studied by the academic community particularly in the advanced countries by taking help of comparatively sophisticated methods of examination. There appears to be substantial support for the following belief despite numerous unsolved issues and controversies arising from the studies which are pointing out in different directions.
Stock price reflect the intrinsic value fairly well as they are practically efficient in responding promptly and reasonably to the flow of information. This means that

Current market price = Intrinsic value

We can say that stock price behaviour is like a random walk in the park that means past price behaviour cannot be used to determine or predict future price behaviour as the successive price changes are independent.
The expected return from the security is linearly associated to its systematic risk (market risk or non-diversifiable risk) because in a capital market there is a positive relationship between risk and return.

Eclectic approach

It is the combination of all the three approaches discussed above, the basic belief of eclectic approach are as follows.

Total dependency on fundamental analysis is not appreciated as there are some uncertainties associated with it but fundamental analysis is helpful in forming a basic standard and benchmark. Fundamental analysis should be viewed with caution because of excessive refinement and complexity associated with it.
Technical analysis is usefully in gauging the current mood of investors and comparative strength of supply and demand forces. Total dependency on technical indicators can result in to a situation which is very dangerous and one might not be able to control it, as the mood of the investors is very unpredictable. Complicated fundamental system habitually represents figments of imagination to a certain extent than tool of proven usefulness therefore it should ordinarily be regarded as the suspect.
The market is neither as speculative as the psychological approach indicates nor as well planned as academic approach recommends. Eclectic approach does have some inefficiency and it is not perfect but it does react rationally and quite efficiently to the flow of information. There are some instances that the securities are mispriced but still there appears to be quite strong association between risk and return.

The operational implications of the eclectic approach are as follows

Certain value ‘Anchors’ are established by conducting fundamental analysis.
The state of market psychology is assessed by technical analysis.
Which securities are worth buying, worth selling or worth disposing is determined by the combine result of fundamental and technical analysis.

Asset allocation

The different asset class definitions are widely debated, but four common divisions are stock

Stock

The capital stock of a business entity represents the original capital paid into or invested in the business by its founders. It serves as a security for the creditors of a business since it cannot be withdrawn to the detriment of the creditors...

s, bonds

Bond (finance)

In finance, a bond is a debt security, in which the authorized issuer owes the holders a debt and, depending on the terms of the bond, is obliged to pay interest to use and/or to repay the principal at a later date, termed maturity...

, real-estate and commodities. The exercise of allocating funds among these assets (and among individual securities within each asset class) is what investment management firms are paid for. Asset classes exhibit different market dynamics, and different interaction effects; thus, the allocation of money among asset classes will have a significant effect on the performance of the fund. Some research suggests that allocation among asset classes has more predictive power than the choice of individual holdings in determining portfolio return. Arguably, the skill of a successful investment manager resides in constructing the asset allocation, and separately the individual holdings, so as to outperform certain benchmarks (e.g., the peer group of competing funds, bond and stock indices).

Long-term returns

It is important to look at the evidence on the long-term returns to different assets, and to holding period returns (the returns that accrue on average over different lengths of investment). For example, over very long holding periods (e.g. 10+ years) in most countries, equities have generated higher returns than bonds, and bonds have generated higher returns than cash. According to financial theory, this is because equities are riskier (more volatile) than bonds which are themselves more risky than cash.

Diversification

Against the background of the asset allocation, fund managers consider the degree of diversification

Diversification (finance)

In finance, diversification means reducing risk by investing in a variety of assets. If the asset values do not move up and down in perfect synchrony, a diversified portfolio will have less risk than the weighted average risk of its constituent assets, and often less risk than the least risky of...

that makes sense for a given client (given its risk preferences) and construct a list of planned holdings accordingly. The list will indicate what percentage of the fund should be invested in each particular stock or bond. The theory of portfolio diversification was originated by Markowitz (and many others) and effective diversification requires management of the correlation between the asset returns and the liability returns, issues internal to the portfolio (individual holdings volatility), and cross-correlation

Cross-correlation

In signal processing, cross-correlation is a measure of similarity of two waveforms as a function of a time-lag applied to one of them. This is also known as a sliding dot product or sliding inner-product. It is commonly used for searching a long-duration signal for a shorter, known feature...

s between the returns.

Investment styles

There are a range of different styles

Investment style

Investment style refers to different style characteristics of equities, bonds or financial derivatives within a given investment philosophy.Theory would favor a combination of big capitalization, passive and value...

of fund management that the institution can implement. For example, growth

Growth investing

Growth investing is a style of investment strategy. Those who follow this style, known as growth investors, invest in companies that exhibit signs of above-average growth, even if the share price appears expensive in terms of metrics such as price-to-earnings or price-to-book ratios...

, value, growth at a reasonable price (GARP), market neutral

Market neutral

An investment strategy or portfolio is considered market neutral if it seeks to entirely avoid some form of market risk, typically by hedging. In order to evaluate market neutrality, it is first necessary to specify the risk being avoided...

, small capitalisation, indexed, etc. Each of these approaches has its distinctive features, adherents and, in any particular financial environment, distinctive risk characteristics. For example, there is evidence that growth

Growth investing

styles (buying rapidly growing earnings) are especially effective when the companies able to generate such growth are scarce; conversely, when such growth is plentiful, then there is evidence that value styles tend to outperform the indices particularly successfully.

Performance measurement

Fund performance is often thought to be the acid test of fund management, and in the institutional context, accurate measurement is a necessity. For that purpose, institutions measure the performance of each fund (and usually for internal purposes components of each fund) under their management, and performance is also measured by external firms that specialize in performance measurement. The leading performance measurement firms (e.g. Frank Russell

Russell Investment Group

Russell Investments is a subsidiary of Northwestern Mutual and is headquartered in Seattle, Washington, U.S.A. Its previous headquarters were located in Tacoma, Washington, south of Seattle. The firm is a Turnkey Asset Management Program and provides investment products and services to individuals...

in the USA or BI-SAM http://www.bi-sam.com in Europe) compile aggregate industry data, e.g., showing how funds in general performed against given indices and peer groups over various time periods.

In a typical case (let us say an equity fund), then the calculation would be made (as far as the client is concerned) every quarter and would show a percentage change compared with the prior quarter (e.g., +4.6% total return in US dollars). This figure would be compared with other similar funds managed within the institution (for purposes of monitoring internal controls), with performance data for peer group funds, and with relevant indices (where available) or tailor-made performance benchmarks where appropriate. The specialist performance measurement firms calculate quartile and decile data and close attention would be paid to the (percentile) ranking of any fund.

Generally speaking, it is probably appropriate for an investment firm to persuade its clients to assess performance over longer periods (e.g., 3 to 5 years) to smooth out very short term fluctuations in performance and the influence of the business cycle. This can be difficult however and, industry wide, there is a serious preoccupation with short-term numbers and the effect on the relationship with clients (and resultant business risks for the institutions).

An enduring problem is whether to measure before-tax or after-tax performance. After-tax measurement represents the benefit to the investor, but investors' tax positions may vary. Before-tax measurement can be misleading, especially in regimens that tax realised capital gains (and not unrealised). It is thus possible that successful active managers (measured before tax) may produce miserable after-tax results. One possible solution is to report the after-tax position of some standard taxpayer.

Risk-adjusted performance measurement

Performance measurement should not be reduced to the evaluation of fund returns alone, but must also integrate other fund elements that would be of interest to investors, such as the measure of risk taken. Several other aspects are also part of performance measurement: evaluating if managers have succeeded in reaching their objective, i.e. if their return was sufficiently high to reward the risks taken; how they compare to their peers; and finally whether the portfolio management results were due to luck or the manager’s skill. The need to answer all these questions has led to the development of more sophisticated performance measures, many of which originate in modern portfolio theory

Modern portfolio theory

Modern portfolio theory is a theory of investment which attempts to maximize portfolio expected return for a given amount of portfolio risk, or equivalently minimize risk for a given level of expected return, by carefully choosing the proportions of various assets...

. Modern portfolio theory established the quantitative link that exists between portfolio risk and return. The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) developed by Sharpe (1964) highlighted the notion of rewarding risk and produced the first performance indicators, be they risk-adjusted ratios (Sharpe ratio, information ratio) or differential returns compared to benchmarks (alphas). The Sharpe ratio is the simplest and best known performance measure. It measures the return of a portfolio in excess of the risk-free rate, compared to the total risk of the portfolio. This measure is said to be absolute, as it does not refer to any benchmark, avoiding drawbacks related to a poor choice of benchmark. Meanwhile, it does not allow the separation of the performance of the market in which the portfolio is invested from that of the manager. The information ratio is a more general form of the Sharpe ratio in which the risk-free asset is replaced by a benchmark portfolio. This measure is relative, as it evaluates portfolio performance in reference to a benchmark, making the result strongly dependent on this benchmark choice.

Portfolio alpha is obtained by measuring the difference between the return of the portfolio and that of a benchmark portfolio. This measure appears to be the only reliable performance measure to evaluate active management. In fact, we have to distinguish between normal returns, provided by the fair reward for portfolio exposure to different risks, and obtained through passive management, from abnormal performance (or outperformance) due to the manager’s skill (or luck), whether through market timing

Market timing

Market timing is the strategy of making buy or sell decisions of financial assets by attempting to predict future market price movements. The prediction may be based on an outlook of market or economic conditions resulting from technical or fundamental analysis...

, stock picking, or good fortune. The first component is related to allocation and style investment choices, which may not be under the sole control of the manager, and depends on the economic context, while the second component is an evaluation of the success of the manager’s decisions. Only the latter, measured by alpha, allows the evaluation of the manager’s true performance (but then, only if you assume that any outperformance is due to skill and not luck).

Portfolio return may be evaluated using factor models. The first model, proposed by Jensen (1968), relies on the CAPM and explains portfolio returns with the market index as the only factor. It quickly becomes clear, however, that one factor is not enough to explain the returns very well and that other factors have to be considered. Multi-factor models were developed as an alternative to the CAPM, allowing a better description of portfolio risks and a more accurate evaluation of a portfolio's performance. For example, Fama and French (1993) have highlighted two important factors that characterize a company's risk in addition to market risk. These factors are the book-to-market ratio and the company's size as measured by its market capitalization. Fama and French therefore proposed three-factor model to describe portfolio normal returns (Fama-French three-factor model

Fama-French three-factor model

In asset pricing and portfolio management the Fama-French three factor model is a model designed by Eugene Fama and Kenneth French to describe stock returns....

). Carhart (1997) proposed to add momentum as a fourth factor to allow the short-term persistence of returns to be taken into account. Also of interest for performance measurement is Sharpe’s (1992) style analysis model, in which factors are style indices. This model allows a custom benchmark for each portfolio to be developed, using the linear combination of style indices that best replicate portfolio style allocation, and leads to an accurate evaluation of portfolio alpha

Education or certification

Increasingly, international business school

Business school

A business school is a university-level institution that confers degrees in Business Administration. It teaches topics such as accounting, administration, economics, entrepreneurship, finance, information systems, marketing, organizational behavior, public relations, strategy, human resource...

s are incorporating the subject into their course outlines and some have formulated the title of 'Investment Management' or 'Asset Management' conferred as specialist bachelor's degree

Bachelor's degree

A bachelor's degree is usually an academic degree awarded for an undergraduate course or major that generally lasts for three or four years, but can range anywhere from two to six years depending on the region of the world...

s (e.g. Cass Business School, London

Cass Business School, London

Cass Business School is the business school of The City University...

). Due to global cross-recognition agreements with the 2 major accrediting agencies AACSB and ACBSP which accredit over 560 of the best business school programs, the Certification of MFP Master Financial Planner Professional from the American Academy of Financial Management

American Academy of Financial Management

The American Academy of Financial Management is a USA-based board of standards, certifying body, and accreditation council dedicated to the finance sector and management professionals....

is available to AACSB and ACBSP business school graduates with finance or financial services-related concentrations. For people with aspirations to become an investment manager, further education may be needed beyond a bachelors in business, finance, or economics. Designations, such as the CIM in Canada, are required for practitioners in the investment management industry. A graduate degree or an investment qualification such as the Chartered Financial Analyst

Chartered Financial Analyst

The Chartered Financial Analyst Program is a graduate level self-study program offered by the CFA Institute to investment and financial professionals...

designation (CFA) may help in having a career in investment management.

There is no evidence that any particular qualification enhances the most desirable characteristic of an investment manager, that is the ability to select investments that result in an above average (risk weighted) long-term performance. The industry has a tradition of seeking out, employing and generously rewarding such people without reference to any formal qualifications.

External links

Investment Company Institute – US industry body
Investment Management Association – UK industry body