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Invasion of Canada (1775)
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The Invasion of Canada in 1775 was the first major military initiative by colonial separatist forces during the American Revolutionary War. One expedition left Fort Ticonderoga under Richard Montgomery, besieged and captured Fort St. John, and very nearly captured British General Guy Carleton when taking Montreal. The other expedition left Cambridge, Massachusetts under Benedict Arnold, and traveled with great difficulty through the wilderness of Maine to Quebec. The two forces joined there, but were defeated at the Battle of Quebec in December 1775.
The British sent several thousand troops, including General John Burgoyne and Hessian mercenaries, to reinforce those at Quebec in May 1776.
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The Invasion of Canada in 1775 was the first major military initiative by colonial separatist forces during the American Revolutionary War. One expedition left Fort Ticonderoga under Richard Montgomery, besieged and captured Fort St. John, and very nearly captured British General Guy Carleton when taking Montreal. The other expedition left Cambridge, Massachusetts under Benedict Arnold, and traveled with great difficulty through the wilderness of Maine to Quebec. The two forces joined there, but were defeated at the Battle of Quebec in December 1775.
The British sent several thousand troops, including General John Burgoyne and Hessian mercenaries, to reinforce those at Quebec in May 1776. General Carleton then launched a counter-offensive, ultimately driving the American forces back to Fort Ticonderoga. The Americans, under Arnold's command, were able to hinder the British advance sufficiently that an attack could not be mounted on Ticonderoga in 1776. The end of the campaign set the stage for the Saratoga campaign of 1777.
In the only significant attempt at rebellion in Nova Scotia, a Massachusetts-born Nova Scotian named Jonathan Eddy raised a small force in November 1776 and attempted to take Fort Cumberland. This action, which was not formally sanctioned by the Continental Congress, failed in December with the arrival of British ships to relieve the siege.
Background
In the spring of 1775, the American Revolutionary War began with the Battle of Lexington and Concord. Soon after, the conflict was at a standstill, with the British Army held up in a siege of Boston. During this long standoff, the colonial forces sought a way to seize the initiative elsewhere. In May 1775, Benedict Arnold and Ethan Allen led a force of colonial militia that captured Fort Ticonderoga and Fort Crown Point, and raided Fort St. John, which at the time was only lightly defended.
The First Congress had previously invited the French-Canadians to join the American Revolution as the fourteenth colony by addressing to them a public letter on October 26, 1774. The Second Congress sent a second such letter in May 1775, but there was no substantive response to either one. Therefore, a plan was devised to drive the British Empire from the primarily francophone colony of Quebec. Two expeditions were undertaken.
Congress authorized General Philip Schuyler, commander of the Northern Department, to mount an invasion to drive British forces from Canada. Benedict Arnold, who had been the first to propose such invasion but was passed over for its command, went to Boston and convinced General George Washington to send a supporting force to Quebec City under his command.
Canadian preparations
General Carleton was keenly aware of the danger of invasion from the south, and requested, without immediate relief, reinforcements from General Thomas Gage. He set about raising local militias to aid in the defense of Montreal and Quebec City, which met with only limited success. In response to the capture of Ticonderoga and the raid on Fort St. John, he sent 700 troops to hold that fort on the Richelieu River south of Montreal, and ordered construction of vessels for use on Lake Champlain, and recruited about one hundred Mohawk to assist in its defense. He himself oversaw the defense of Montreal, leading only 150 regulars, since he relied on Fort St. John for the main defense. The defense of Quebec City he left under the command of Lieutenant-Governor Cramahé, commanding only a small force of regulars.
Montgomery's expedition
The primary thrust of the invasion was to be led by General Schuyler, going up Lake Champlain to assault Montreal and then Quebec City. The expedition was to be composed of forces from New York, Connecticut, and New Hampshire, as well as the Green Mountain Boys under Ethan Allen, with provisions supplied by New York. However, Schuyler was overly cautious, and by mid-August the colonists were receiving reports that General Carleton was fortifying defensive positions outside Montreal, and that some Native tribes had joined with the British.
Approach to St. John
In mid-August, Schuyler went to Albany for conference with the Iroquois. On August 28, General Montgomery, taking advantage of Schuyler's absence (and in the absence of orders authorizing movement), led 1,200 troops that had mustered at Ticonderoga, up to a forward position at Ile aux Noix, arriving September 4. Schuyler, who was falling ill, caught up with the troops en route. He dispatched a letter to James Livingston, a Canadian prepared to raise local militia forces in support of the American effort, to circulate in the area south of Montreal. The next day, the forces went down the river to Fort St. John, where, after seeing the defenses and a brief skirmish in which both sides suffered casualties, they withdrew to Ile aux Noix. The skirmish, which involved mostly Natives on the British side, was not supported from the fort, ultimately causing the Natives to withdraw from the conflict. At this point, General Schuyler became too ill to continue, so command was turned over to Montgomery, and Schuyler left for Fort Ticonderoga on September 16.
After another false start, and the arrival of another 800–1000 men from Connecticut, New Hampshire, and New York, as well as some of the Green Mountain Boys., Montgomery finally began besieging Fort St. John on September 17, cutting off its communications with Montreal and capturing supplies intended for the fort. The following week, Ethan Allen was captured in the Battle of Longue-Pointe, when, overstepping instructions to merely raise local militia, he attempted to take Montreal with a small force of men. This event resulted in a brief upturn in militia support for the British; but the effects were relatively short-lived, with many deserting again in the following days. After an attempt by General Carleton to relieve the siege failed on October 30, the fort finally surrendered on November 3.
Occupation of Montreal begins
Montgomery then led his troops north and occupied Saint Paul's Island in the Saint Lawrence River on November 8, crossing to Pointe Saint-Charles on the following day, where he was greeted as a liberator. Montreal fell without any significant fighting on November 13, as Carleton, deciding that the city was indefensible (and having suffered significant militia desertion upon the news of the fall of St. John), withdrew. He barely escaped capture, as some Americans had crossed the river downstream of the city, and winds prevented his fleet from departing right away. When his fleet neared Sorel, it was approached by a boat carrying a truce flag. The boat carried a demand for surrender, claiming that batteries downstream would otherwise destroy the convoy. Based on uncertain knowledge of how real these batteries were, Carleton elected to sneak off the ship, after ordering the dumping of powder and ammunition if surrender was deemed necessary. (There were batteries in place, but not nearly as powerful as those claimed.) On November 19, the British fleet surrendered; Carleton, disguised as a common man, made his way to Quebec City. The captured ships included prisoners that the British had taken; among these was Moses Hazen, a Massachusetts-born expatriate with property near Fort St. John whose poor treatment by the British turned him against them. Hazen, who had combat experience in the French and Indian War, and would go on to lead the 2nd Canadian Regiment throughout the war, joined Montgomery's army.
Before departing Montreal for Quebec City, Montgomery published messages to the inhabitants that the Congress wanted Quebec to join them, and entered into discussions with American sympathizers with the aim of holding a provincial convention for the purpose of electing delegates to Congress. He also wrote to General Schuyler, requesting that a Congressional delegation be sent to take up diplomatic activities.
Much of Montgomery's army departed due to expiring enlistments after the fall of Montreal. He then used some of the captured boats to move towards Quebec City with about 300 troops on November 28, leaving about 200 in Montreal under the command of General David Wooster. Along the way, he picked up James Livingston's 1st Canadian Regiment of about 200 men.
Arnold's expedition
Benedict Arnold,who had been rejected for leadership of the Champlain Valley expedition, returned to Cambridge, Massachusetts, and approached George Washington with the idea of a supporting eastern invasion force aimed at Quebec City. Washington approved the idea, and gave Arnold 1,100 men, including Daniel Morgan's riflemen, for the effort.
Arnold's expedition was a success in that he was able to bring a body of troops to the gates of Quebec City. However, the expedition was beset by troubles as soon as it left the last significant outposts of civilization in Maine. There were numerous difficult portages as the troops moved up the Kennebec River, and the boats they were using frequently leaked, spoiling gunpowder and food supplies. The height of land between the Kennebec and the Chaudière River was a swampy tangle of lakes and streams, where the traversal was complicated by bad weather, resulting in one quarter of the troops turning back. The descent down the Chaudière resulted in the destruction of more boats and supplies as the inexperienced troops were unable to control the boats in its fast-moving waters.
By the time Arnold reached the outskirts of civilization along the Saint Lawrence River in November, his force was reduced to 600 starving men. They had traveled over almost 400 miles through untracked wilderness. When Arnold and his troops finally reached the Plains of Abraham on November 14, Arnold sent a negotiator with a white flag to demand their surrender, but to no avail. The Americans, with no cannons, and barely fit for action, faced a fortified city. Arnold, after hearing of a planned sortie from the city, decided on November 19 to withdraw to Pointe-aux-Trembles to wait for Montgomery, who had recently captured Montreal. As he headed upriver, Carleton returned to Quebec by river following his defeat at Montreal.
On December 2, Montgomery finally came down river from Montreal with 500 troops and bringing captured British supplies and winter clothing. The two forces united, and plans were made for an attack on the city. By the 5th, the Continental Army again stood on the Plains of Abraham and began to besiege the city of Quebec.
Battle and siege of Quebec
While planning the attack on the city, Christophe Pélissier, a Frenchman living near Trois-Rivières, came to meet with Montgomery. Pélissier, who was politically supportive of the American cause, operated an ironworks at Saint-Maurice. Montgomery discussed the idea of holding the provincial convention with him. Pélissier recommended against holding a convention until after Quebec City had been taken, as the habitants would not feel free to act in that way until their security was better assured. The two did agree to have Pélissier's ironworks provide munitions for the siege, which he did until the Americans retreated in May 1776 (at which time Pélissier also fled, eventually returning to France).
Montgomery joined Arnold and James Livingston in an assault on Quebec City during a snowstorm on December 31, 1775. Outnumbered and lacking any sort of tactical advantage, they were soundly defeated by Carleton. Montgomery was killed, Arnold was wounded, and many men were taken prisoner, including Daniel Morgan. Following the battle, Arnold sent Moses Hazen and Edward Antill, another expatriate American, to report the defeat and request support to Wooster in Montreal, and also to the Congress in Philadelphia.
Carleton chose not to pursue the Americans, opting instead to stay within the fortifications of the city, and await reinforcements that might be expected to arrive when the river thawed in the spring. Arnold maintained a somewhat ineffectual siege over the city, until March 1776, when he was ordered to Montreal and replaced by General Wooster. During these months, the besieging army suffered from difficult winter conditions, and smallpox began to travel more significantly through the camp, those losses being somewhat offset by the arrival of some 400 reinforcements per month. On March 14, Jean-Baptiste Chasseur entered Quebec City and informed Carleton that there were 200 men on the south side of the river ready to act against the Americans. These men and more were mobilized, but an advance force was defeated in the Battle of Saint-Pierre by a detachment of pro-American local militia that were stationed on the south side of the river.
By the end of March, the besieging army outside Quebec City had grown to almost 3,000, although almost one quarter of these were unfit for service, mainly due to smallpox. Furthermore, James Livingston and Moses Hazen, commanding the 500 Canadians in the army, were pessimistic about the loyalty of their men due to the persistent Loyalist propaganda.
Discontent in Montreal
When General Montgomery left Montreal for Quebec City, he left the administration of the city in the hands of Connecticut's Brigadier General David Wooster. While Wooster at first had decent relations with the community, he took a number of steps that caused the local population to come to dislike the American military presence. After promising American ideals to the population, he began arresting Loyalists and threatening arrest and punishment of anyone opposed to the American cause. He also disarmed several communities, and attempted to force local militia members to surrender their Crown commissions. Those who refused were arrested and imprisoned at Fort Chambly. These and similar acts, combined with the fact that the Americans were paying for supplies and services with paper money rather than coin, served to disillusion the local population about the entire American enterprise. On March 20, Wooster left to take command of the forces at Quebec City, leaving Moses Hazen, who had raised the 2nd Canadian Regiment, in command of Montreal until Arnold arrived on April 19.
On April 29, a delegation consisting of three members of the Continental Congress, along with a Catholic priest and a French printer from Philadelphia, arrived in Montreal. The Congress had assigned this delegation the task of assessing the situation in Quebec, and attempting to sway public opinion to their cause. This delegation, which included Benjamin Franklin, was largely unsuccessful in its efforts, as relations were already significantly damaged. The delegation had not brought any hard currency to alleviate debts to the population that were accumulating. Efforts to turn the Catholic clergy to their cause failed, as the local priests pointed out that the Quebec Act had given them what they wanted. Fleury Mesplet, the printer, while he had set up his press, did not have time to produce anything before events began to overtake the delegation. Franklin and the priest left Montreal on May 11, following news that the American forces at Quebec City were in panicked retreat, to return to Philadelphia. Samuel Chase and Charles Carroll, the other two delegates, analyzed the military situation in the area south and east of Montreal, finding it a good place to set up a defense. On May 27, the wrote a report to Congress on the situation, and left for the south.
The Cedars
Upriver from Montreal were a series of small British garrisons that the Americans had not concerned themselves with during most of the occupation. As spring approached, bands of Cayuga, Seneca, and Mississauga warriors began to gather at Oswegatchie, one of these garrisons, giving the commander there, Captain George Forster, a force with which to cause trouble for the Americans. Forster had recruited them on the recommendation of a Loyalist who had escaped from Montreal. Furthermore, while General Wooster, much to the annoyance of both Patriot and Loyalist merchants, and fearing the use of supplies sent in that direction by the British forces there, had refused to permit trade with the Indians upriver, the Congressional delegation had reversed this decision, and supplies began flowing out of the city up the river.
In order to prevent the flow of supplies to the British forces upriver, General Arnold, after he assumed control of the American forces in April, detached Colonel Timothy Bedel and 390 men to a position 40 miles upriver at Les Cèdres (English: The Cedars), where they built a stockaded defense works. Colonel Forster was made aware of these movements by Indian spies and Loyalists who escaped from the city, and on May 15 began to move downriver with a mixed force of about 250 Natives, militia, and regulars. In an almost comical series of missteps, Bedel's lieutenant Isaac Butterfield surrendered this entire force without a fight on the 18th, and Bedel also surrendered another 100 men brought as reinforcements after a brief skirmish on the 19th.
Vaudreuil
On receiving news of Bedel's capture, Arnold immediately began assembling a force to recover them, which he entrenched in a position at Lachine, just upriver from Montreal. Forster, who had left the captives in the stockade at Les Cèdres, moved closer to Montreal with a force now numbering around 500, until May 24 when he received intelligence of Arnold's location, and that Arnold was expecting additional forces which would significantly outnumber his. Not hearing of any reinforcements arriving to assist him from further downriver, he negotiated an agreement with his captives to exchange them for British prisoners taken during the siege of Fort St. John. After a brief exchange of cannonfire at Vaudreuil, Arnold also agreed to the exchange, which took place between the 27th and 30th of May.
Reinforcements arrive at Quebec City
General Wooster arrived in the American camp outside Quebec City in early April with reinforcements. More reinforcements continued to arrive from the south, until General John Thomas arrived at the end of April and assumed command of a force that was nominally over 2,000 strong, but in reality significantly diminished by the effects of smallpox and the hardships of the Canadian winter. On May 2, rumors began circulating that British ships were coming up the river. Thomas decided on May 5 to evacuate the sick to Trois-Rivières, with the rest of the forces to withdraw as soon as practical. Late on that day he received intelligence that 15 ships were 40 leagues below the city, awaiting favorable conditions to come up the river.
The pace of camp evacuation took on a sense of urgency early on the morning of the 6th when ships masts were spotted; the wind had changed, and 3 ships of the fleet had reached the city. Carleton, having been informed of pace of activity in the American camp, rapidly unloaded reinforcements from the arrived ships, and around noon marched with a force of about 900 troops to test the Americans. The American response was essentially panic; a disorganized retreat began that might have ended even more disastrously for the Americans had Carleton pressed his advantage. He, hoping to win over the rebels with a lenient attitude, contented himself with sending ships up the river to harass the Americans, and to possibly cut them off. He also captured a number of Americans, mostly sick and wounded, but also a detachment of troops that had been abandoned on the south side of the St. Lawrence. The Americans, in their hurry to get away, left numerous valuable military effects, including cannon and gunpowder, in their wake. They regrouped on the 7th at Deschambault, about 40 miles upriver from Quebec City. A war council was held, in which most of the leadership favored retreat. Thomas opted to send word to Montreal, requesting assistance, since many of the troops had little more than the clothes on their backs and a few days rations.
The Congressional delegation in Montreal, upon hearing this news, determined that holding the Saint Lawrence would no longer be possible, and dispatched only a small number of troops toward Deschambault. Thomas, after waiting for six days for word from Montreal and hearing none, began to withdraw toward Trois-Rivières, but not before having to fight off skirmishers that forces landed from British ships on the river. They reached Trois-Rivières on May 15, where they left the sick, and a detachment of New Jersey troops to defend them. By the 18th, the remaining troops joined reinforcements under John Sullivan at Sorel, where on the 21st, a council was held with the Congressional delegates, and Thomas contracted smallpox. He died on June 2 and was replaced by Sullivan.
Carleton's counteroffensive
Trois-Rivières
On May 6, 1776, a small squadron of British ships under Captain Charles Douglas had arrived to relieve Quebec with supplies and 3,000 troops, precipitating the Americans' retreat to Sorel. However, General Carleton did not take significant offensive measures until May 22, when he sailed to Trois-Rivières with the 47th and 29th regiments. While hearing news of Forster success at Les Cèdres, instead of pushing ahead he returned to Quebec City, leaving Allen Maclean in command at Trois-Rivières. There he met General John Burgoyne, who had arrived on June 1 with a large force of mostly Irish recruits, Hessian mercenaries, and a warchest of money.
The Americans at Sorel, on receiving word that a force of "only 300 men" was at Trois-Rivières, thought that they should be able to send a force from Sorel to take Trois-Rivières back. Unaware that major British reinforcements had arrived, and ignorant of the geography around the town, Brigadier General William Thompson led 2,000 men first into a swamp, and then into the teeth of a reinforced, entrenched British army. This disaster included the capture of Thompson and many of his senior officers, as well as 200 men and most of the ships used for the expedition, and forecast the end of the American occupation of Quebec. Carleton once again did not press his advantage, even going so far as to eventually return the captives to New York, in great comfort, in August.
Retreat to Crown Point
Early on June 14, Carleton finally sailed his army up the river to Sorel. Arriving late in the day, they discovered that the Americans had abandoned Sorel just that morning, and were retreating up the Richelieu River valley toward Chambly and Saint-Jean. Unlike the departure from Quebec City, the Americans left in a somewhat orderly manner, although some units were separated from the main force by the arrival of Carleton's fleet, and were forced to march to Montreal to join Arnold's forces. Carleton directed General Burgoyne and 4,000 troops to move up the Richelieu after the retreating Americans, while Carleton continued sailing up to Montreal.
In Montreal, Arnold was ignorant of the events taking place downriver, having recently finished dealing with Forster. A messenger he sent downriver toward Sorel on the 15th for news from General Sullivan spotted Carleton's fleet, escaped to shore from his canoe, and returned with the news to Montreal on a stolen horse. Within four hours, Arnold and the American forces garrisoned around Montreal had abandoned the city (but not before trying to burn it down), leaving it in the hands of the local militia. Carleton's fleet arrived in Montreal on June 17.
Arnold's troops caught up with the main army near Saint-Jean on the 17th. Sullivan's army was in no condition to fight, and after a brief council, the decision was made to retreat to Crown Point. The army got away from Fort Saint-Jean almost literally moments before the vanguard of Burgoyne's army arrived on the scene.
The remains of the American army arrived at Crown Point by the beginning of July, ending a campaign that was described as "a heterogeneal concatenation of the most peculiar and unparalleled rebuffs and sufferings that are perhaps to be found in the annals of any nation", by Isaac Senter, a doctor who experienced much of the campaign. Unfortunately, the campaign was not quite ended, as Burgoyne's army was still on the move.
Shipbuilding and politics
The Americans had been careful at every step of the retreat up the Richelieu and across Lake Champlain to deny the British of any significant shipping, burning or sinking any boats they did not take with them. This forced the British to spend several months building ships. Carleton reported to London on September 28 that "I expect our Fleet will soon sail with hopes of success should they come to action". General Arnold, when he and Ethan Allen captured Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775, had established a small navy that was still patrolling Lake Champlain.
While the British assembled a navy to counteract Arnold's, Carleton dealt with matters in Montreal. Even before the Americans retreated from Quebec City, he formed committees to look into the roles played by local Patriot sympathizers, sending them out into the countryside to arrest active participants in the American action, including those who had detained Loyalists. When he arrived in Montreal, similar commissions were set up.
Valcour Island
General Horatio Gates was given command of the Continental Army's northern forces in early July. He promptly moved the bulk of the army to Ticonderoga, leaving a force of about 300 at Crown Point. The army was busied improving the defenses at Ticonderoga, while Arnold was given the task of building up the American fleet at Crown Point. Throughout the summer, reinforcements poured into Ticonderoga, until the army was estimated to be 10,000 strong.
Carleton began to move on October 7. By the 9th, the British fleet was on Lake Champlain. In a naval action between Valcour Island and the western shore, beginning on the night of October 10–11, the British inflicted heavy damage to Arnold's fleet, forcing him to withdraw to Crown Point. Feeling that Crown Point would be inadequate protection against a sustained British attack, he then withdrew to Ticonderoga. British forces occupied Crown Point on October 17.
Carleton's troops remained at Crown Point for two weeks, with some troops advancing to within three miles of Ticonderoga, apparently in an attempt to draw Gates' army out. On November 2, they pulled out of Crown Point and withdrew to winter quarters in Quebec.
Aftermath
The invasion of Canada ended as a disaster for the Americans, but Arnold's improvised navy on Lake Champlain had the effect of delaying a full-scale British counter thrust until the Saratoga campaign of 1777. Carleton was heavily criticized in London for not pursuing the American retreat from Quebec more aggressively, and so command of the 1777 offensive was given to General Burgoyne instead.
Conquering Canada remained a key objective of Congress throughout the war though George Washington, who had supported the first invasion, considered any further expeditions a low priority that would divert men and resources away from the main war in the Thirteen Colonies. There were some minor efforts, usually by Americans who had migrated into the northern provinces, to take actions in support of the revolution. The most notable of these was the Eddy Rebellion of November 1776, in which Massachusetts expatriate Jonathan Eddy, who received some funding and supplies from George Washington, tried, but failed, to take Fort Cumberland in central Nova Scotia.
During the Paris peace talks, the American negotiators unsuccessfully demanded all of Quebec as part of the war spoils. Benjamin Franklin, primarily interested in the Ohio Country, which had been made part of Quebec by the Quebec Act of 1774, suggested in the peace talks that Quebec should be surrendered to America; only the Ohio Country was ceded.
In the War of 1812 the Americans launched another invasion of Canada, again expecting the local populace to support them. The failed invasion is now regarded as significant in Canadian history and it has even been claimed as the birth of modern Canada.
Casualties
Returns of the Continental Army troops from Canada in May 1776, which show how hard the campaign was on the soldiers:
- Colonel Reed's Regt., N.H. 350 Soldiers Fit for duty, 81 Sick
- Colonel Stark's Regt., N.H. 389 Soldiers Fit for duty, 40 Sick
- Colonel Poor's Regt., N.H. 406 Soldiers Fit for duty, 96 Sick
- Colonel Paterson's Regt., Mass 238 Soldiers Fit for duty, 71 Sick
- Colonel Greaton's Regt., Mass. 281 Soldiers Fit for duty, 52 Sick
- Colonel Bond's Regt., Mass. 230 Soldiers Fit for duty, 43 Sick
- Colonel Wayne's Regt., Penn. 128 Soldiers Fit for duty, 28 Sick
- Colonel Irvine's Regt., Penn. 609 Soldiers Fit for duty, 33 Sick
- Colonel Dayton's Regt., N.J. 528 Soldiers Fit for duty, 28 Sick
- Colonel Wind's Regt., N.J. 377 Soldiers Fit for duty, 28 Sick
- Colonel De Haas' Regt., Penn. 471 Soldiers Fit for duty, 68 Sick
- Colonel Bedel's Regt., N.H. 106 Soldiers Fit for duty, 53 Sick
- Colonel Maxwell’s Regt., N.J. 227 Soldiers Fit for duty, 64 Sick
- Colonel Burrell's Regt., Conn. 279 Soldiers Fit for duty, 263 Sick
- Colonel Porter's Regt., Mass. 109 Soldiers Fit for duty, 254 Sick
- Colonel St. Clair's Regt., Penn. 312 Soldiers Fit for duty, 51 Sick
- Total: 5,040 soldiers fit for duty and 1,253 sick
Further reading
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