Infant communion
Encyclopedia
Infant Communion refers to the practice of giving the Eucharist
, often in the form of consecrated wine, to infants and children. This practice is standard in the Eastern Orthodox Church
and the Eastern Catholic Churches; here, communion is given at the Divine Liturgy
to all baptized and chrismated
church members regardless of age. Infant communion is less common in most other Christian denomination
s, including the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church.
19:14 and Mark
10:14. Among the Church Fathers
, Cyprian
, Augustine
, and Leo the Great explicitly favored infant communion.http://www.paedocommunion.com/articles/fathers_quotations.php
(fourth century) instruct that children are to receive communion after the various orders of clergy and consecrated laity and before the general congregation.
Over time, concerns grew over danger of spillage from the chalice
when it was offered to the entire congregation; there were also practical concerns about consecrating the right amount of wine. It eventually became common in the Western Church for only priests and some monk
s and nuns to receive communion from the chalice. The teaching of the Church was that Christ was present, whole and entire, under the form of bread or wine. Others maintain that the restriction of the chalice to the clergy and religious was motivated by scrupulosity
rather than practical concerns http://www.episcopalchurch.org/19625_14570_ENG_HTM.htm. Ultimately, the elimination of reception under both species made infant communion impractical and it had declined in the West by the time of the Great Schism
. This practice has since fallen into disfavor in the Roman Catholic Church, especially with the growing emphasis on not giving the sacraments (other than baptism) to those not yet able to understand them (see age of reason
).
Meanwhile, in the Eastern Churches, the faithful continued to receive communion under both species. With no practical difficulties or theological qualms with giving communion to infants and children, this practice continues in the Eastern Orthodox Church to this day.
, usually around the age of seven or eight years old. This is in accordance with the Code of Canon Law
(followed in the Roman Rite), which states:
The reason given for the non-necessity of infant communion was articulated by the Council of Trent:
Thus, the Council declared:
Formerly, the Eastern Churches in full communion
with the Roman Pope
were generally required to conform to Western Church practice, in violation of the far more ancient practice of the Eastern Churches. However, the Second Vatican Council
's decree Orientalium Ecclesiarum
, although not specifically addressing infant communion, states that the Council "confirms and approves the ancient discipline of the sacraments existing in the Oriental Churches, as also the ritual practices connected with their celebration and administration and ardently desires that this should be re-established if circumstances warrant it" (Section 12).
This has led some of these Churches to restore the ancient practice of permitting infant communion.
The Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches (followed by the Eastern Catholic Churches) permits infant communion: "With respect to the participation of infants in the Divine Eucharist after baptism and chrismation with holy myron, the prescriptions of the liturgical book
s of each Church sui iuris are to be observed with the suitable due precautions." (Canon 710)
For details on infant communion in the Eastern Catholic Churches, see the next section on the Eastern Orthodoxy.
, any person of any age receives communion as soon as possible after baptism
and chrismation
, usually at the next Divine Liturgy
. Infants and children are not usually required to fast
or go to confession
before communion until they are old enough to be aware of their sin
s, usually eight to nine years old.
In the Orthodox practice, the consecrated bread and wine are placed together in the chalice, and the priest
administers communion with a small spoon. Infants typically receive a small amount of consecrated Blood of Christ (wine) which mingles with the Body (bread) of Christ; older children receive the consecrated Body of Christ (bread) as well. There is no theological (or epistemological) reason for withholding the bread from infants, merely the practical concern of not giving solid food to those not ready for it.
and among those Anglican churches that are not affiliated with the Anglican Communion. Open communion
is practiced in some churches. The Church of England
at the moment requires that people be "ready and desirous" of confirmation before receiving communion. However, there have been experiments with communion before confirmation in some of its dioceses. The Church of England also allows baptised regular communicants from other Trinitarian churches to receive communion when visiting a CofE church. This permission would seem, therefore, to extend to infants in the practice of receiving in their own churches; but in many of the world's Anglican churches the invitation so extended includes a specific reference to "adult" visitors.
, in which the bread and wine/juice is offered to the people without discrimination of age or denominational status. In these churches, while the very young often commune, it is unusual for infants to receive the Eucharist.
Denominations which practice closed communion
generally deny the Eucharist to those not members of their congregation or denomination, regardless of age.
In churches where membership is often not permitted until the teenage years (for example, the Amish
), infant communion is very rare.
In recent years, the Eastern practice of paedocommunion has gained considerable attention in the West, including among some conservative Protestants.
Notable conservative Protestants in favor of the practice are Curtis Crenshaw, Reggie Kidd, Peter Leithart
, Jeffrey Meyers, Robert S. Rayburn, R. C. Sproul, Jr.
, Gregg Strawbridge, Ray Sutton, Douglas Wilson
, Rousas John Rushdoony
, James B. Jordan, Gary North, Steve Wilkins
and N. T. Wright.
The Federation of Reformed Churches practices paedocommunion in all its churches as does the Confederation of Reformed Evangelical Churches
. The Christian Reformed Church
and the Reformed Episcopal Church
, a conservative Anglican denomination, also are tolerant of the practice, and many conservative Presbyterians favor paedocommunion as well.
Church. At most churches in the ELCA
(as well as nearly 25% in the LCMS), First Communion
instruction is provided to baptized children generally between the ages of 6-8 and, after a relatively short period of catechetical
instruction, the children are admitted to partake of the Eucharist. In other ELCA and LCMS churches, however, the person must have receive Confirmation
before receiving the Eucharist. As a whole, the ELCA teaches that the gift of communion is given at baptism; it is just that some more conservative churches choose to keep a tradition that children should be more aware of what communion means before they partake. Infants and children who haven't received the catechetical instruction (or Confirmation) may be brought to the Communion distribution by their parents to be blessed by the pastor.
The Evangelical Catholic Church
practices infant communion.
Eucharist
The Eucharist , also called Holy Communion, the Sacrament of the Altar, the Blessed Sacrament, the Lord's Supper, and other names, is a Christian sacrament or ordinance...
, often in the form of consecrated wine, to infants and children. This practice is standard in the Eastern Orthodox Church
Eastern Orthodox Church
The Orthodox Church, officially called the Orthodox Catholic Church and commonly referred to as the Eastern Orthodox Church, is the second largest Christian denomination in the world, with an estimated 300 million adherents mainly in the countries of Belarus, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia, Greece,...
and the Eastern Catholic Churches; here, communion is given at the Divine Liturgy
Divine Liturgy
Divine Liturgy is the common term for the Eucharistic service of the Byzantine tradition of Christian liturgy. As such, it is used in the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches. Armenian Christians, both of the Armenian Apostolic Church and of the Armenian Catholic Church, use the same term...
to all baptized and chrismated
Chrismation
Chrismation is the name given in Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Catholic churches, as well as in the Assyrian Church of the East, Anglican, and in Lutheran initiation rites, to the Sacrament or Sacred Mystery more commonly known in the West as confirmation, although Italian...
church members regardless of age. Infant communion is less common in most other Christian denomination
Christian denomination
A Christian denomination is an identifiable religious body under a common name, structure, and doctrine within Christianity. In the Orthodox tradition, Churches are divided often along ethnic and linguistic lines, into separate churches and traditions. Technically, divisions between one group and...
s, including the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church.
Theology
Support for infant communion is drawn from several gospel verses, including MatthewGospel of Matthew
The Gospel According to Matthew is one of the four canonical gospels, one of the three synoptic gospels, and the first book of the New Testament. It tells of the life, ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth...
19:14 and Mark
Gospel of Mark
The Gospel According to Mark , commonly shortened to the Gospel of Mark or simply Mark, is the second book of the New Testament. This canonical account of the life of Jesus of Nazareth is one of the three synoptic gospels. It was thought to be an epitome, which accounts for its place as the second...
10:14. Among the Church Fathers
Church Fathers
The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church were early and influential theologians, eminent Christian teachers and great bishops. Their scholarly works were used as a precedent for centuries to come...
, Cyprian
Cyprian
Cyprian was bishop of Carthage and an important Early Christian writer, many of whose Latin works are extant. He was born around the beginning of the 3rd century in North Africa, perhaps at Carthage, where he received a classical education...
, Augustine
Augustine of Hippo
Augustine of Hippo , also known as Augustine, St. Augustine, St. Austin, St. Augoustinos, Blessed Augustine, or St. Augustine the Blessed, was Bishop of Hippo Regius . He was a Latin-speaking philosopher and theologian who lived in the Roman Africa Province...
, and Leo the Great explicitly favored infant communion.http://www.paedocommunion.com/articles/fathers_quotations.php
History
In the Early Church, everyone who attended the Liturgy of the Faithful was expected to receive communion; catechumens and penitents were not present for the Consecration. The Early Church permitted and encouraged parents to present their children to receive communion. The Apostolic ConstitutionsApostolic Constitutions
The Apostolic Constitutions is a Christian collection of eight treatises which belongs to genre of the Church Orders. The work can be dated from 375 to 380 AD. The provenience is usually regarded as Syria, probably Antioch...
(fourth century) instruct that children are to receive communion after the various orders of clergy and consecrated laity and before the general congregation.
Over time, concerns grew over danger of spillage from the chalice
Chalice (cup)
A chalice is a goblet or footed cup intended to hold a drink. In general religious terms, it is intended for drinking during a ceremony.-Christian:...
when it was offered to the entire congregation; there were also practical concerns about consecrating the right amount of wine. It eventually became common in the Western Church for only priests and some monk
Monk
A monk is a person who practices religious asceticism, living either alone or with any number of monks, while always maintaining some degree of physical separation from those not sharing the same purpose...
s and nuns to receive communion from the chalice. The teaching of the Church was that Christ was present, whole and entire, under the form of bread or wine. Others maintain that the restriction of the chalice to the clergy and religious was motivated by scrupulosity
Scrupulosity
Scrupulosity is a psychological disorder characterized by pathological guilt about moral or religious issues. It is personally distressing, objectively dysfunctional, and often accompanied by significant impairment in social functioning...
rather than practical concerns http://www.episcopalchurch.org/19625_14570_ENG_HTM.htm. Ultimately, the elimination of reception under both species made infant communion impractical and it had declined in the West by the time of the Great Schism
East–West Schism
The East–West Schism of 1054, sometimes known as the Great Schism, formally divided the State church of the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western branches, which later became known as the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church, respectively...
. This practice has since fallen into disfavor in the Roman Catholic Church, especially with the growing emphasis on not giving the sacraments (other than baptism) to those not yet able to understand them (see age of reason
Age of reason (canon law)
In the Roman Catholic Church, the age of reason, also called the age of discretion, is the age at which children become capable of moral responsibility. On completion of the seventh year a minor is presumed to have the use of reason, but mental retardation or insanity could prevent some...
).
Meanwhile, in the Eastern Churches, the faithful continued to receive communion under both species. With no practical difficulties or theological qualms with giving communion to infants and children, this practice continues in the Eastern Orthodox Church to this day.
Catholicism
The practice of allowing infants and children to receive communion has fallen into disfavor in the Latin-Rite of the Catholic Church. Latin-Rite Catholics generally refrain from infant communion and instead have a special ceremony when the child receives his or her First CommunionFirst Communion
The First Communion, or First Holy Communion, is a Catholic Church ceremony. It is the colloquial name for a person's first reception of the Sacrament of the Holy Eucharist. Catholics believe this event to be very important, as the Eucharist is one of the central focuses of the Catholic Church...
, usually around the age of seven or eight years old. This is in accordance with the Code of Canon Law
Canon law
Canon law is the body of laws & regulations made or adopted by ecclesiastical authority, for the government of the Christian organization and its members. It is the internal ecclesiastical law governing the Catholic Church , the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox churches, and the Anglican Communion of...
(followed in the Roman Rite), which states:
- The administration of the Most Holy Eucharist to children requires that they have sufficient knowledge and careful preparation so that they understand the mystery of Christ according to their capacity and are able to receive the body of Christ with faith and devotion. (Canon 913)
The reason given for the non-necessity of infant communion was articulated by the Council of Trent:
- "The same holy council teaches that little children who have not attained the use of reason are not by any necessity bound to the sacramental communion of the Eucharist; for having been regenerated by the laver of baptism and thereby incorporated with Christ, they cannot at that age lose the grace of the sons of God already acquired. Antiquity is not therefore to be condemned, however, if in some places it at one time observed that custom. For just as those most holy Fathers had acceptable ground for what they did under the circumstances, so it is certainly to be accepted without controversy that they regarded it as not necessary to salvation." (Council of Trent, Sess. XXI, Chapter iv)
Thus, the Council declared:
- "If anyone says that communion of the Eucharist is necessary for little children before they have attained the years of discretion,let him be anathema." (Council of Trent, Sess. XXI, can. iv)
Formerly, the Eastern Churches in full communion
Full communion
In Christian ecclesiology, full communion is a relationship between church organizations or groups that mutually recognize their sharing the essential doctrines....
with the Roman Pope
Holy See
The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Catholic Church in Rome, in which its Bishop is commonly known as the Pope. It is the preeminent episcopal see of the Catholic Church, forming the central government of the Church. As such, diplomatically, and in other spheres the Holy See acts and...
were generally required to conform to Western Church practice, in violation of the far more ancient practice of the Eastern Churches. However, the Second Vatican Council
Second Vatican Council
The Second Vatican Council addressed relations between the Roman Catholic Church and the modern world. It was the twenty-first Ecumenical Council of the Catholic Church and the second to be held at St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican. It opened under Pope John XXIII on 11 October 1962 and closed...
's decree Orientalium Ecclesiarum
Orientalium Ecclesiarum
Orientalium Ecclesiarum is the Decree on the Eastern Catholic Churches from the Second Vatican Council. One of the shorter such documents, it was passed by the assembled bishops by a vote of 2,110 to 39 and promulgated by Pope Paul VI on November 21, 1964...
, although not specifically addressing infant communion, states that the Council "confirms and approves the ancient discipline of the sacraments existing in the Oriental Churches, as also the ritual practices connected with their celebration and administration and ardently desires that this should be re-established if circumstances warrant it" (Section 12).
This has led some of these Churches to restore the ancient practice of permitting infant communion.
The Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches (followed by the Eastern Catholic Churches) permits infant communion: "With respect to the participation of infants in the Divine Eucharist after baptism and chrismation with holy myron, the prescriptions of the liturgical book
Liturgical book
A liturgical book is a book published by the authority of a church, that contains the text and directions for the liturgy of its official religious services.-Roman Catholic:...
s of each Church sui iuris are to be observed with the suitable due precautions." (Canon 710)
For details on infant communion in the Eastern Catholic Churches, see the next section on the Eastern Orthodoxy.
Eastern Orthodoxy
In the Orthodox ChurchEastern Orthodox Church
The Orthodox Church, officially called the Orthodox Catholic Church and commonly referred to as the Eastern Orthodox Church, is the second largest Christian denomination in the world, with an estimated 300 million adherents mainly in the countries of Belarus, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia, Greece,...
, any person of any age receives communion as soon as possible after baptism
Baptism
In Christianity, baptism is for the majority the rite of admission , almost invariably with the use of water, into the Christian Church generally and also membership of a particular church tradition...
and chrismation
Chrismation
Chrismation is the name given in Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Catholic churches, as well as in the Assyrian Church of the East, Anglican, and in Lutheran initiation rites, to the Sacrament or Sacred Mystery more commonly known in the West as confirmation, although Italian...
, usually at the next Divine Liturgy
Divine Liturgy
Divine Liturgy is the common term for the Eucharistic service of the Byzantine tradition of Christian liturgy. As such, it is used in the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches. Armenian Christians, both of the Armenian Apostolic Church and of the Armenian Catholic Church, use the same term...
. Infants and children are not usually required to fast
Fasting
Fasting is primarily the act of willingly abstaining from some or all food, drink, or both, for a period of time. An absolute fast is normally defined as abstinence from all food and liquid for a defined period, usually a single day , or several days. Other fasts may be only partially restrictive,...
or go to confession
Confession
This article is for the religious practice of confessing one's sins.Confession is the acknowledgment of sin or wrongs...
before communion until they are old enough to be aware of their sin
Sin
In religion, sin is the violation or deviation of an eternal divine law or standard. The term sin may also refer to the state of having committed such a violation. Christians believe the moral code of conduct is decreed by God In religion, sin (also called peccancy) is the violation or deviation...
s, usually eight to nine years old.
In the Orthodox practice, the consecrated bread and wine are placed together in the chalice, and the priest
Priest
A priest is a person authorized to perform the sacred rites of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites; in particular, rites of sacrifice to, and propitiation of, a deity or deities...
administers communion with a small spoon. Infants typically receive a small amount of consecrated Blood of Christ (wine) which mingles with the Body (bread) of Christ; older children receive the consecrated Body of Christ (bread) as well. There is no theological (or epistemological) reason for withholding the bread from infants, merely the practical concern of not giving solid food to those not ready for it.
Anglicanism
Practice varies widely throughout the Anglican CommunionAnglican Communion
The Anglican Communion is an international association of national and regional Anglican churches in full communion with the Church of England and specifically with its principal primate, the Archbishop of Canterbury...
and among those Anglican churches that are not affiliated with the Anglican Communion. Open communion
Open communion
Open communion is the practice of Christian churches that allow individuals other than members of that church to receive Holy Communion...
is practiced in some churches. The Church of England
Church of England
The Church of England is the officially established Christian church in England and the Mother Church of the worldwide Anglican Communion. The church considers itself within the tradition of Western Christianity and dates its formal establishment principally to the mission to England by St...
at the moment requires that people be "ready and desirous" of confirmation before receiving communion. However, there have been experiments with communion before confirmation in some of its dioceses. The Church of England also allows baptised regular communicants from other Trinitarian churches to receive communion when visiting a CofE church. This permission would seem, therefore, to extend to infants in the practice of receiving in their own churches; but in many of the world's Anglican churches the invitation so extended includes a specific reference to "adult" visitors.
Protestant Denominations
Many Mainline Protestants practice open communionOpen communion
Open communion is the practice of Christian churches that allow individuals other than members of that church to receive Holy Communion...
, in which the bread and wine/juice is offered to the people without discrimination of age or denominational status. In these churches, while the very young often commune, it is unusual for infants to receive the Eucharist.
Denominations which practice closed communion
Closed communion
Closed communion is the practice of restricting the serving of the elements of Holy Communion to those who are members of a particular church, denomination, sect, or congregation...
generally deny the Eucharist to those not members of their congregation or denomination, regardless of age.
In churches where membership is often not permitted until the teenage years (for example, the Amish
Amish
The Amish , sometimes referred to as Amish Mennonites, are a group of Christian church fellowships that form a subgroup of the Mennonite churches...
), infant communion is very rare.
In recent years, the Eastern practice of paedocommunion has gained considerable attention in the West, including among some conservative Protestants.
Notable conservative Protestants in favor of the practice are Curtis Crenshaw, Reggie Kidd, Peter Leithart
Peter Leithart
Peter J. Leithart is an American author, minister, theologian and Senior Fellow of Theology and Literature as well as Dean of Graduate Studies at New Saint Andrews College and holds a doctorate from Cambridge University. He was selected by the Association of Reformed Institutions of Higher...
, Jeffrey Meyers, Robert S. Rayburn, R. C. Sproul, Jr.
R. C. Sproul, Jr.
Robert Craig Sproul, better known as R.C. Sproul, Jr., is a Calvinist Christian minister and theologian and is the son of Robert Charles Sproul, a noted Reformed theologian and founder of Ligonier Ministries....
, Gregg Strawbridge, Ray Sutton, Douglas Wilson
Douglas Wilson (theologian)
Douglas James Wilson is a conservative Reformed and evangelical theologian, pastor at Christ Church in Moscow, Idaho, faculty member at New Saint Andrews College, and prolific author and speaker...
, Rousas John Rushdoony
Rousas John Rushdoony
Rousas John Rushdoony was a Calvinist philosopher, historian, and theologian and is widely credited as the father of Christian Reconstructionism and an inspiration for the modern Christian homeschool movement...
, James B. Jordan, Gary North, Steve Wilkins
J. Steven Wilkins
J. Steven Wilkins is a conservative American Calvinist and evangelical pastor and author.-Biography:Steve Wilkins holds degrees from the University of Alabama and the Reformed Theological Seminary of Jackson, Mississippi...
and N. T. Wright.
The Federation of Reformed Churches practices paedocommunion in all its churches as does the Confederation of Reformed Evangelical Churches
Confederation of Reformed Evangelical Churches
The Communion of Reformed Evangelical Churches , formerly the Confederation of Reformed Evangelical Churches, was founded in 1998 as a body of churches that hold to Reformed theology. Member churches include those from Presbyterian, Reformed, and Reformed Baptist backgrounds...
. The Christian Reformed Church
Christian Reformed Church in North America
The Christian Reformed Church in North America is a Protestant Christian denomination in the United States and Canada. Having roots in the Dutch Reformed churches of the Netherlands, the Christian Reformed Church was founded by Gijsbert Haan and Dutch immigrants who left the Reformed Church in...
and the Reformed Episcopal Church
Reformed Episcopal Church
The Reformed Episcopal Church is an Anglican church in the United States and Canada and a founding member of the Anglican Church in North America...
, a conservative Anglican denomination, also are tolerant of the practice, and many conservative Presbyterians favor paedocommunion as well.
Lutherans
Infant communion is not the norm in the LutheranLutheranism
Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the theology of Martin Luther, a German reformer. Luther's efforts to reform the theology and practice of the church launched the Protestant Reformation...
Church. At most churches in the ELCA
Evangelical Lutheran Church in America
The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America is a mainline Protestant denomination headquartered in Chicago, Illinois. The ELCA officially came into existence on January 1, 1988, by the merging of three churches. As of December 31, 2009, it had 4,543,037 baptized members, with 2,527,941 of them...
(as well as nearly 25% in the LCMS), First Communion
First Communion
The First Communion, or First Holy Communion, is a Catholic Church ceremony. It is the colloquial name for a person's first reception of the Sacrament of the Holy Eucharist. Catholics believe this event to be very important, as the Eucharist is one of the central focuses of the Catholic Church...
instruction is provided to baptized children generally between the ages of 6-8 and, after a relatively short period of catechetical
Luther's Small Catechism
Luther's Small Catechism was written by Martin Luther and published in 1529 for the training of children. Luther's Small Catechism reviews The Ten Commandments, The Apostles' Creed, The Lord's Prayer, The Sacrament of Holy Baptism, The Office of the Keys & Confession, and The Sacrament of the...
instruction, the children are admitted to partake of the Eucharist. In other ELCA and LCMS churches, however, the person must have receive Confirmation
Confirmation (Lutheran Church)
Confirmation in the Lutheran Church is a public profession of faith prepared for by long and careful instruction. In English, it is called "affirmation of baptism", and is a mature and public profession of the faith which "marks the completion of the congregation's program of confirmation...
before receiving the Eucharist. As a whole, the ELCA teaches that the gift of communion is given at baptism; it is just that some more conservative churches choose to keep a tradition that children should be more aware of what communion means before they partake. Infants and children who haven't received the catechetical instruction (or Confirmation) may be brought to the Communion distribution by their parents to be blessed by the pastor.
The Evangelical Catholic Church
Evangelical Catholic Church
The Evangelical Catholic Church is an Independent Catholic Church which is theologically Lutheran, embracing the Augsburg Confession . Its membership numbers under 500. It was incorporated in Arizona in 1976. It practices infant communion....
practices infant communion.
External links
- Quotations by Church Fathers
- Catholic Encyclopedia: Communion of Children
- Quam singulari
- Catholic Encyclopedia: Frequent Communion
- Catholic Encyclopedia: Communion under Both Kinds
- Code of Canon Law (Roman Rite), from the Vatican
- Code of Canons of the Oriental Churches (Eastern Catholic Churches), from the IntraText Digital Library
- Proposed Presbytery In thesi Statement on Paedo-communion
- PCA (Presbyterian Church in America) Report on Paedocommunion (1988)
- OPC (Orthodox Presbyterian Church) Report of the Committee on Paedocommunion (1987)
- Administration of the Sacraments - Statement issued by the Church of ScotlandChurch of ScotlandThe Church of Scotland, known informally by its Scots language name, the Kirk, is a Presbyterian church, decisively shaped by the Scottish Reformation....
. - List of Denominations allowing Infant Communion
- Orientalium Ecclesiarum, from the Vatican