Indo-Aryan languages

The '''Indo-Aryan languages''' (within the context of [[Indo-European studies]] also '''Indic''') constitutes a branch of the [[Indo-Iranian languages]], itself a branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] family. Indo-Aryan speakers form about one half (approx 1.5 billion) of all Indo-European speakers (approx 3 billion), also Indo-Aryan has more than half of all recognized Indo-European languages, according to [[Ethnologue]]. The largest in terms of native speakers being [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] ([[Standard Hindi]] and [[Urdu]], about 240 million), [[Bangla language|Bengali]] (about 230 million), [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] (about 90 million), [[Marathi language|Marathi]] (about 70 million), [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] (about 45 million), [[Oriya language|Oriya]] (about 30 million), [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] (about 20 million), [[Nepali language|Nepali]] (about 14 million), [[Sinhalese language|Sinhala]] (about 16 million), [[Saraiki language|Saraiki]] (about 14 million) and [[Assamese language|Assamese]] (about 13 million) with a total number of native speakers of more than 900 million. They form a subgroup of the [[Indo-Iranian languages]], which consists of two other language groups: the [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] and [[Nuristani languages|Nuristani]]. ====Old Indo-Aryan==== The earliest evidence of the group is from [[Vedic Sanskrit]], the language used in the ancient preserved texts of the [[Indian subcontinent]], the foundational canon of [[Hinduism]] known as the [[Veda]]s. The [[Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni]] is of similar age as the [[Rigveda]] (and almost identical to it), but the only evidence is a number of loanwords. In about the 4th century BCE, the [[Sanskrit]] language was codified and standardized by the grammarian [[Panini (scholar)|Panini]], called "Classical Sanskrit" by convention. ====Middle Indo-Aryan==== Outside the learned sphere of Sanskrit, vernacular dialects ([[Prakrit]]s) continued to evolve. The oldest attested prakrits (i.e., middle Indic languages) are the Buddhist and Jain canonical languages [[Pali]] and [[Ardhamagadhi|Ardha Magadhi]], respectively. By medieval times, the prakrits had diversified into various [[Middle Indic]] dialects. "[[Apabhramsa]]" is the conventional cover term for transitional dialects connecting late Middle Indic with early Modern Indic, spanning roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. Some of these dialects showed considerable literary production; the [[Sravakachar]] of Devasena (dated to the 930s) is now considered to be the first Hindi book. The next major milestone occurred with the [[Muslim invasions of India]] in the 13th, 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. Under the flourishing [[Mughal empire]], [[Persian language|Persian]] became very influential as the language of prestige of the Islamic courts. However, Persian was soon displaced by [[Urdu]]. This Indo-Aryan language is a combination with Persian elements in its vocabulary, with the grammar of the local dialects. The two largest languages that formed from Apabhramsa were [[Bengali language|Bengali]] and [[Hindi language|Hindi]]; others include [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Oriya language|Oriya]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]. =====Dialect continuum===== The Indic languages of [[Northern India]] (that includes [[Assam Valley]] as for the language [[Assamese language|Assamese]]) and [[Pakistan]] form a [[dialect continuum]]. What is called "[[Hindi]]" in India is frequently [[Standard Hindi]], the [[Sanskrit]]-ized version of the colloquial [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] spoken in the [[Delhi]] area since the [[Mughals]]. However, the term Hindi is also used for most of the central Indic dialects from [[Bihar]] to [[Rajasthan]]. The Indo-Aryan [[prakrit]]s also gave rise to languages like [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Oriya language|Oriya]], [[Nepali language|Nepali]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], which are not considered to be Hindi despite being part of the same dialect continuum. =====Standard forms of Hindi-Urdu===== {{See also|History of Hindi|History of Urdu}} In the Hindi-speaking areas, the [[prestige dialect]] was long ''[[Braj Bhasha]]'', but this was replaced in the 19th century by ''[[Khari Boli]]''–based [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], commonly known as Urdu. This state of affairs continued until the [[Partition of India]] in 1947, when Hindustani/Urdu continued as an official language of India and Pakistan but renamed ''Hindi'' in India and ''Urdu'' in Pakistan. Persian-Arabian vocabulary began to be excised from the official [[Standard Hindi]] corpus of India in a bid to make the language more "Indian". A return to Hindi poets such as [[Tulsidas]] resulted in what is known as a Sanskritisation of the language. Persian words in common parlance were slowly replaced by Sanskrit words, sometimes borrowed wholesale, or in new compounds. In contemporary times, there is a continuum of Hindi–Urdu, with heavily-Persianised Urdu at one end and Sanskritised Hindi at the other, although the basic grammar remains identical. Most people speak something in the middle, and this is what the term Hindustani is frequently used to mean today. ===Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni=== {{main|Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni}} Some theonyms, proper names and other terminology of the Mitanni exhibit an Indo-Aryan superstrate, suggesting that an [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] elite imposed itself over the [[Hurrian]] population in the course of the [[Indo-Aryan migration|Indo-Aryan expansion]]. In a treaty between the [[Hittites]] and the Mitanni, the deities [[Mitra]], [[Varuna]], [[Indra]], and [[Nasatya]] ([[Asvins|Ashvins]]) are invoked. [[Kikkuli]]'s horse training text includes technical terms such as ''aika'' (''eka'', one), ''tera'' (''tri'', three), ''panza'' (''pancha'', five), ''satta'' (''sapta'', seven), ''na'' (''nava'', nine), ''vartana'' (''vartana'', turn, round in the horse race). The numeral aika "one" is of particular importance because it places the superstrate in the vicinity of Indo-Aryan proper as opposed to Indo-Iranian or early Iranian (which has "aiva") in general Another text has ''babru'' (''babhru'', brown), ''parita'' (''palita'', grey), and ''pinkara'' (''pingala'', red). Their chief festival was the celebration of the [[solstice]] (''vishuva'') which was common in most cultures in the ancient world. The Mitanni warriors were called ''marya'', the term for warrior in [[Sanskrit]] as well; note mišta-nnu (= miẓḍha,~ Sanskrit mīḍha) "payment (for catching a fugitive)" (M. Mayrhofer, Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen< Heidelberg 1986-2000; Vol. II 358). Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni royal names render Artashumara (artaššumara) as Arta-smara "who thinks of Arta/Ṛta" (Mayrhofer II 780), Biridashva (biridašṷa, biriiašṷa) as Prītāśva "whose horse is dear" (Mayrhofer II 182), Priyamazda (priiamazda) as Priyamedha "whose wisdom is dear" (Mayrhofer II 189, II378), Citrarata as citraratha "whose chariot is shining" (Mayrhofer I 553), Indaruda/Endaruta as Indrota "helped by Indra" (Mayrhofer I 134), Shativaza (šattiṷaza) as Sātivāja "winning the race price" (Mayrhofer II 540, 696), Šubandhu as Subandhu 'having good relatives" (a name in Palestine, Mayrhofer II 209, 735), Tushratta (tṷišeratta, tušratta, etc.) as *tṷaiašaratha, Vedic [[Tvastr]] "whose chariot is vehement" (Mayrhofer, Etym. Wb., I 686, I 736). ===Romani language=== {{main|Romani language}} The Romani language is usually included in the Central Indo-Aryan languages. Romani is conservative in maintaining almost intact the Middle Indo-Aryan present-tense person concord markers, and in maintaining consonantal endings for nominal case – both features that have been eroded in most other modern languages of Central India. It shares an innovative pattern of past-tense person concord with the languages of the Northwest, such as Kashmiri and Shina. This is believed to be further proof that Romani originated in the Central region, then migrated to the Northwest. There are no known historical documents about the early phases of the Romani language. Linguistic evaluation carried out in the nineteenth century by Pott (1845) and Miklosich (1882–1888) showed that the Romani language is to be a New Indo-Aryan language (NIA), not a Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA), establishing that the ancestors of the Romani could not have left India significantly earlier than AD 1000. The principal argument favouring a migration during or after the transition period to NIA is the loss of the old system of nominal case, and its reduction to just a two-way case system, nominative vs. oblique. A secondary argument concerns the system of gender differentiation. Romani has only two genders (masculine and feminine). Middle Indo-Aryan languages (named MIA) generally had three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), and some modern Indo-Aryan languages retain this old system even today. It is argued that loss of the neuter gender did not occur until the transition to NIA. Most of the neuter nouns became masculine while a few feminine, like the neuter अग्नि (agni) in the Prakrit became the feminine आग (āg) in Hindi and jag in Romani. The parallels in grammatical gender evolution between Romani and other NIA languages have been cited as evidence that the forerunner of Romani remained on the Indian subcontinent until a later period, perhaps even as late as the tenth century. ==Classification== {{main|List of Indo-Aryan languages}} [[Image:Indoarische Sprachen Gruppen.png|thumb|240px|Indo-Aryan languages, grouping according to [[SIL Ethnologue]]: {{legend|#ff0000|Central zone}} {{legend|#ff00ff|Northern zone}} {{legend|#0000ff|Northwestern zone}} {{legend|#ffff00|Eastern zone}} {{legend|#00ffff|Southern zone}} {{legend|#00ff00|Insular (Southern)}} ]] Because there are not always clear breaks between languages, there is no definite classification of the Indo-Aryan languages. However, they are commonly divided as follows: *'''[[Dardic languages]]''', such as [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]]: though their exact classification among Indo-Aryan, [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] and [[Nuristani languages|Nuristani Group]], is uncertain. *'''Northern languages''': [[Nepali language|Nepali]], [[Kumaoni language|Kumaoni]], [[Garhwali]] *'''Northwestern languages''', such as [[Lahnda languages|Lahnda]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], and the [[Western Pahari]] languages *'''Central languages''', such as [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Rajasthani language|Rajasthani]], [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] *'''Magadhan, or Eastern, languages''', such as [[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Oriya language|Oriya]] , [[Maithili language|Maithili]] and [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] *'''Southern languages''', such as [[Dhivehi language|Dhivehi]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Sinhalese language|Sinhala]], and perhaps [[Dakhini]] ====Stop positions==== The normative system of New Indo-Aryan stops consists of five [[points of articulation]]: [[Labial consonant|labial]], [[Dental consonant|dental]], "[[Retroflex consonant|retroflex]]", [[palatal]], and [[velar]], which is the same as that of Sanskrit. The "retroflex" position may involve retroflexion, or curling the tongue to make the contact with the underside of the tip, or merely retraction. The point of contact may be [[alveolar]] or [[postalveolar]], and the distinctive quality may arise more from the shaping than from the position of the tongue. Palatals stops have [[affricate]]d release and are traditionally included as involving a distinctive tongue position (blade in contact with hard palate). Widely transcribed as {{IPA|[tʃ]}}, {{Harvcoltxt|Masica|1991|p=94}} claims {{IPA|[cʃ]}} to be a more accurate rendering. Moving away from the normative system, some languages and dialects have alveolar affricates {{IPA|[ts]}} instead of palatal, though some among them retain {{IPA|[tʃ]}} in certain positions: before [[front vowel]]s (esp. {{IPA|/i/}}), before {{IPA|/j/}}, or when [[geminate]]d. Alveolar as an ''additional'' point of articulation occurs in [[Marathi language|Marathi]] and [[Konkani people|Konkani]] where dialect mixture and others factors upset the aforementioned complementation to produce minimal environments, in some West Pahari dialects through internal developments ({{IPA|*t̪ɾ}}, {{IPA|t̪}} > {{IPA|/tʃ/}}), and in [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]]. The addition of a [[Voiceless retroflex affricate|retroflex affricate]] to this in some [[Dardic languages]] maxes out the number of stop positions at seven (barring borrowed {{IPA|/q/}}), while a reduction to the inventory involves *ts > {{IPA|/s/}}, which has happened in [[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Chittagonian language|Chittagonian]], [[Sinhalese language|Sinhalese]] (though there have been other sources of a secondary {{IPA|/ts/}}), and Southern Mewari. Further reductions in the number of stop articulations are in Assamese and [[Romany language|Romany]], which have lost the characteristic dental/retroflex contrast, and in Chittagonian, which is in danger of losing its labial and velar articulations through [[spirantization]] in many positions (> {{IPA|[f, x]}}). {| class="wikitable" |{{IPAslink|p}}, {{IPAslink|t̪}}, {{IPAslink|ʈ}}, {{IPAslink|tʃ}}, {{IPAslink|k}}||Hindi, Punjabi, Dogri, Sindhi, Gujarati, Bihari,Maithili, Sinhalese, Oriya, Standard Bengali, dialects of Rajasthani (except Lamani, NW. Marwari, S. Mewari) |- |{{IPAslink|p}}, {{IPAslink|t̪}}, {{IPAslink|ʈ}}, {{IPAslink|ts}}, {{IPAslink|k}}||Nepali, E. and N. dialects of Bengali (Dacca, Maimansing, Rajshahi), dialects of Rajasthani (Lamani and NW. Marwari), Northern Lahnda's Kagani, Kumauni, many West Pahari dialects (not Chamba Mandeali, Jaunsari, or Sirmauri) |- |{{IPAslink|p}}, {{IPAslink|t̪}}, {{IPAslink|ʈ}}, {{IPAslink|ts}}, {{IPAslink|tʃ}}, {{IPAslink|k}}||Marathi, Konkani, certain W. Pahari dialects (Bhadrawahi, Bhalesi, Padari, Simla, Satlej, maybe Kulu), Kashmiri |- | style="width:185px;"|{{IPAslink|p}}, {{IPAslink|t̪}}, {{IPAslink|ʈ}}, {{IPAslink|ts}}, {{IPAslink|tʃ}}, {{IPAslink|tʂ}}, {{IPAslink|k}}||Shina, Bashkarik, Gawarbati, Phalura, Kalasha, Khowar, Shumashti, Kanyawali, Pashai |- |{{IPAslink|p}}, {{IPAslink|t̪}}, {{IPAslink|ʈ}}, {{IPAslink|k}}||Rajasthani's S. Mewari |- |{{IPAslink|p}}, {{IPAslink|t}}, {{IPAslink|k}}||Assamese |- |{{IPAslink|p}}, {{IPAslink|t}}, {{IPAslink|tʃ}}, {{IPAslink|k}}||Romani |- |{{IPAslink|t̪}}, {{IPAslink|ʈ}}||Chittagonian |} ====Nasals==== Sanskrit was noted as having five [[Nasal consonant|nasal stop]] articulations corresponding to its oral stops, and among modern languages and dialects Dogri, Kacchi, Kalasha, Rudhari, Shina, Saurasthtri, and Sindhi have been analyzed as having this full complement of phonemic nasals {{IPAslink|m}} {{IPAslink|n}} {{IPAslink|ɳ}} {{IPAslink|ɲ}} {{IPAslink|ŋ}}, with the last two generally as the result of the loss of the stop from a [[homorganic]] nasal + stop cluster ({{IPA|[ɲj]}} > {{IPA|[ɲ]}} and {{IPA|[ŋɡ]}} > {{IPA|[ŋ]}}), though there are other sources as well. ===Charts=== The following are consonant systems of major and representative New Indo-Aryan languages, as presented in {{Harvcoltxt|Masica|1991|pp=106–107}}, though here they are in [[IPA]]. Parentheses indicate those consonants found only in loanwords: square brackets indicate those with "very low functional load". The arrangement is roughly geographical. {| |- style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;" | {| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black" |+Romani |- |{{IPA|p}}||{{IPA|t}}||{{IPA|(ts)}}||{{IPA|tʃ}}||{{IPA|k}}||{{IPA|pʲ}}||{{IPA|tʲ}}||{{IPA|kʲ}} |- |{{IPA|b}}||{{IPA|d}}||{{IPA|(dz)}}||{{IPA|dʒ}}||{{IPA|ɡ}}||{{IPA|bʲ}}||{{IPA|dʲ}}||{{IPA|ɡʲ}} |- |{{IPA|pʰ}}||{{IPA|tʰ}}|| ||{{IPA|tʃʰ}}||{{IPA|kʰ}} |- |{{IPA|m}}||{{IPA|n}}|| || || || ||{{IPA|nʲ}} |- |{{IPA|(f)}}||{{IPA|{{IPA|s}}|| ||{{IPA|ʃ}}||{{IPA|x}}||{{IPA|({{IPA|fʲ}})}}||{{IPA|{{IPA|sʲ}} |- |{{IPA|v}}||{{IPA|(z)}}|| ||{{IPA|ʒ}}||{{IPA|ɦ}}||{{IPA|vʲ}}||{{IPA|{{IPA|zʲ}} |- | ||{{IPA|ɾ}}||{{IPA|l}}|| || || ||{{IPA|lʲ}} |- | || || ||{{IPA|j}} |} | {| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black" |+Shina |- |{{IPA|p}}||{{IPA|t̪}}||{{IPA|ʈ}}||{{IPA|ts}}||{{IPA|tʃ}}||{{IPA|tʂ}}||{{IPA|k}} |- |{{IPA|b}}||{{IPA|d̪}}||{{IPA|ɖ}}|| ||{{IPA|dʒ}}||{{IPA|ɖʐ}}||{{IPA|ɡ}} |- |{{IPA|pʰ}}||{{IPA|t̪ʰ}}||{{IPA|ʈʰ}}||{{IPA|tsʰ}}||{{IPA|tʃʰ}}||{{IPA|tʂʰ}}||{{IPA|kʰ}} |- |{{IPA|m}}||{{IPA|n}}||{{IPA|ɳ}}|| ||{{IPA|ɲ}}|| ||{{IPA|ŋ}} |- |{{IPA|(f)}}||{{IPA|{{IPA|s}}||{{IPA|ʂ}}|| ||{{IPA|ɕ}} |- | ||{{IPA|z}}||{{IPA|ʐ}}|| ||{{IPA|ʑ}}|| ||{{IPA|ɦ}} |- | ||{{IPA|ɾ}} l}}||{{IPA|ɽ}} |- |{{IPA|w}}|| || || ||{{IPA|j}} |} |colspan="2"| {| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black" |+Kashmiri |- |{{IPA|p}}||{{IPA|t̪}}||{{IPA|ʈ}}||{{IPA|ts}}||{{IPA|tʃ}}||{{IPA|k}}||{{IPA|pʲ}}||{{IPA|t̪ʲ}}||{{IPA|ʈʲ}}||{{IPA|tsʲ}}||{{IPA|kʲ}} |- |{{IPA|b}}||{{IPA|d̪}}||{{IPA|ɖ}}|| ||{{IPA|dʒ}}||{{IPA|ɡ}}||{{IPA|bʲ}}||{{IPA|d̪ʲ}}||{{IPA|ɖʲ}}|| ||{{IPA|ɡʲ}} |- |{{IPA|pʰ}}||{{IPA|t̪ʰ}}||{{IPA|ʈʰ}}||{{IPA|tsʰ}}||{{IPA|tʃʰ}}||{{IPA|kʰ}}||{{IPA|pʲʰ}}||{{IPA|t̪ʲʰ}}||{{IPA|ʈʲʰ}}||{{IPA|tsʲʰ}}||{{IPA|kʲʰ}} |- |{{IPA|m}}||{{IPA|n}}|| || ||{{IPA|ɲ}}|| ||{{IPA|mʲ}}||{{IPA|nʲ}} |- | ||{{IPA|s}}|| || ||{{IPA|ʃ}}|| || ||{{IPA|{{IPA|sʲ}} |- | ||{{IPA|z}}|| || || ||{{IPA|ɦ}}|| ||{{IPA|{{IPA|zʲ}}|| || ||{{IPA|ɦʲ}} |- | ||{{IPA|ɾ l}}|| || || || || || ||{{IPA|ɾʲ lʲ}} |- |{{IPA|w}}|| || || ||{{IPA|j}}|| ||{{IPA|wʲ}} |} |- style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;" | {| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black" |+Siraiki |- |{{IPA|p}}||{{IPA|t̪}}||{{IPA|ʈ}}||{{IPA|tʃ}}||{{IPA|k}} |- |{{IPA|b}}||{{IPA|d̪}}||{{IPA|ɖ}}||{{IPA|dʒ}}||{{IPA|ɡ}} |- |{{IPA|pʰ}}||{{IPA|t̪ʰ}}||{{IPA|ʈʰ}}||{{IPA|tʃʰ}}||{{IPA|kʰ}} |- |{{IPA|bʱ}}||{{IPA|d̪ʱ}}||{{IPA|ɖʱ}}||{{IPA|dʒʱ}}||{{IPA|ɡʱ}} |- |{{IPA|ɓ}}|| ||{{IPA|ɗ}}||{{IPA|ʄ}}||{{IPA|ɠ}} |- |{{IPA|m}}||{{IPA|n}}||{{IPA|ɳ}}||{{IPA|ɲ}}||{{IPA|ŋ}} |- |{{IPA|mʱ}}||{{IPA|nʱ}}||{{IPA|ɳʱ}} |- | ||{{IPA|s}}|| ||{{IPA|(ʃ)}}||{{IPA|(x)}} |- | ||{{IPA|(z)}}|| || ||{{IPA|(ɣ) ɦ}} |- | ||{{IPA|ɾ l}}||{{IPA|ɽ}} |- | ||{{IPA|ɾʱ lʱ}}||{{IPA|ɽʱ}} |- |{{IPA|w}}|| || ||{{IPA|j}} |- |{{IPA|wʱ}} |} | {| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black" |+Punjabi |- |{{IPA|p}}||{{IPA|t̪}}||{{IPA|ʈ}}||{{IPA|tʃ}}||{{IPA|k}} |- |{{IPA|b}}||{{IPA|d̪}}||{{IPA|ɖ}}||{{IPA|dʒ}}||{{IPA|ɡ}} |- |{{IPA|pʰ}}||{{IPA|t̪ʰ}}||{{IPA|ʈʰ}}||{{IPA|tʃʰ}}||{{IPA|kʰ}} |- |{{IPA|m}}||{{IPA|n}}||{{IPA|ɳ}}||{{IPA|[ɲ}}||{{IPA|ŋ]}} |- |{{IPA|(f)}}||{{IPA|{{IPA|s}}|| ||{{IPA|(ʃ)}} |- | ||(z)}}|| || ||{{IPA|ɦ}} |- | ||{{IPA|ɾ l}}||{{IPA|ɽ ɭ}} |- |{{IPA|[w]}}|| || ||{{IPA|[j]}} |} | {| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black" |+Nepali |- |{{IPA|p}}||{{IPA|t̪}}||{{IPA|ʈ}}||{{IPA|ts}}||{{IPA|k}} |- |{{IPA|b}}||{{IPA|d̪}}||{{IPA|ɖ}}||{{IPA|dz}}||{{IPA|ɡ}} |- |{{IPA|pʰ}}||{{IPA|t̪ʰ}}||{{IPA|ʈʰ}}||{{IPA|tsʰ}}||{{IPA|kʰ}} |- |{{IPA|bʱ}}||{{IPA|d̪ʱ}}||{{IPA|ɖʱ}}||{{IPA|dzʱ}}||{{IPA|ɡʱ}} |- |{{IPA|m}}||{{IPA|n}}|| || ||{{IPA|ŋ}} |- |{{IPA|mʱ}}||{{IPA|nʱ}} |- | ||{{IPA|{{IPA|s}}|| ||{{IPA|ʃ}}||{{IPA|ɦ}} |- | ||{{IPA|ɾ l}} |- | ||{{IPA|ɾʱ lʱ}} |- |{{IPA|[w]}}|| || ||{{IPA|[j]}} |} | {| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black" |+Assamese |- |{{IPA|p}}||{{IPA|t}}||{{IPA|k}} |- |{{IPA|b}}||{{IPA|d}}||{{IPA|ɡ}} |- |{{IPA|pʰ}}||{{IPA|tʰ}}||{{IPA|kʰ}} |- |{{IPA|bʱ}}||{{IPA|dʱ}}||{{IPA|ɡʱ}} |- |{{IPA|m}}||{{IPA|n}}||{{IPA|ŋ}} |- | ||{{IPA|s}}||{{IPA|x}} |- | ||{{IPA|z}}||{{IPA|ɦ}} |- | ||{{IPA|ɾ l}}|| || |- |{{IPA|[w]}} |} |- style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;" | {| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black" |+Sindhi |- |{{IPA|p}}||{{IPA|t̪}}||{{IPA|ʈ}}||{{IPA|tʃ}}||{{IPA|k}} |- |{{IPA|b}}||{{IPA|d̪}}||{{IPA|ɖ}}||{{IPA|dʒ}}||{{IPA|ɡ}} |- |{{IPA|pʰ}}||{{IPA|t̪ʰ}}||{{IPA|ʈʰ}}||{{IPA|tʃʰ}}||{{IPA|kʰ}} |- |{{IPA|bʱ}}||{{IPA|d̪ʱ}}||{{IPA|ɖʱ}}||{{IPA|dʒʱ}}||{{IPA|ɡʱ}} |- |{{IPA|ɓ}}|| ||{{IPA|ɗ}}||{{IPA|ʄ}}||{{IPA|ɠ}} |- |{{IPA|m}}||{{IPA|n}}||{{IPA|ɳ}}||{{IPA|ɲ}}||{{IPA|ŋ}} |- |{{IPA|mʱ}}||{{IPA|nʱ}}||{{IPA|ɳʱ}} |- | ||{{IPA|s}}|| ||{{IPA|(ʃ)}}||{{IPA|(x)}} |- | ||(z)}}|| || ||{{IPA|(ɣ) ɦ}} |- | || ||{{IPA|ɾ l}}||{{IPA|ɽ}} |- | || ||{{IPA|ɾʱ lʱ}}||{{IPA|ɽʱ}} |- |{{IPA|w}}|| || ||{{IPA|j}} |- |{{IPA|wʱ}} |} | {| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black" |+Marwari |- |{{IPA|p}}||{{IPA|t̪}}||{{IPA|ʈ}}||{{IPA|tʃ}}||{{IPA|k}} |- |{{IPA|b}}||{{IPA|d̪}}||{{IPA|ɖ}}||{{IPA|dʒ}}||{{IPA|ɡ}} |- |{{IPA|pʰ}}||{{IPA|t̪ʰ}}||{{IPA|ʈʰ}}||{{IPA|tʃʰ}}||{{IPA|kʰ}} |- |{{IPA|bʱ}}||{{IPA|d̪ʱ}}||{{IPA|ɖʱ}}||{{IPA|dʒʱ}}||{{IPA|ɡʱ}} |- |{{IPA|ɓ}}||{{IPA|ɗ̪}}||{{IPA|ɗ}}|| ||{{IPA|ɠ}} |- |{{IPA|m}}||{{IPA|n}}||{{IPA|ɳ}} |- |{{IPA|mʱ}}||{{IPA|nʱ}} |- | ||{{IPA|s}}|| || ||{{IPA|ɦ}} |- | ||{{IPA|ɾ l}}||{{IPA|ɽ ɭ}} |- |{{IPA|w}}|| || ||{{IPA|j}} |- |{{IPA|wʱ}} |} | {| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black" |+Hindi/Urdu |- |{{IPA|p}}||{{IPA|t̪}}||{{IPA|ʈ}}||{{IPA|tʃ}}||{{IPA|k}} |- |{{IPA|b}}||{{IPA|d̪}}||{{IPA|ɖ}}||{{IPA|dʒ}}||{{IPA|ɡ}} |- |{{IPA|pʰ}}||{{IPA|t̪ʰ}}||{{IPA|ʈʰ}}||{{IPA|tʃʰ}}||{{IPA|kʰ}} |- |{{IPA|bʱ}}||{{IPA|d̪ʱ}}||{{IPA|ɖʱ}}||{{IPA|dʒʱ}}||{{IPA|ɡʱ}} |- |{{IPA|m}}||{{IPA|n}} |- |{{IPA|(f)}}||{{IPA|{{IPA|s}}|| ||{{IPA|(ʃ)}} |- | ||(z)}}|| || ||{{IPA|ɦ}} |- | ||{{IPA|ɾ l}}||{{IPA|ɽ}} |- | || ||{{IPA|ɽʱ}} |- |{{IPA|([w])}}|| || ||{{IPA|([j])}} |} | {| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black" |+Assamese |- |p||t||k |- |b||d||g |- |{{IPA|pʰ}}||{{IPA|tʰ}}||{{IPA|kʰ}} |- |{{IPA|bʱ}}||{{IPA|dʱ}}||{{IPA|ɡʱ}} |- |m||n||ŋ |- |||s||x |- |||z||{{IPA|ɦ}} |- |||{{IPA|ɾ l}}|| |- |[w] |} |- style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;" | {| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black" |+Bengali |- |{{IPA|p}}||{{IPA|t̪}}||{{IPA|ʈ}}||{{IPA|tʃ}}||{{IPA|k}} |- |{{IPA|b}}||{{IPA|d̪}}||{{IPA|ɖ}}||{{IPA|dʒ}}||{{IPA|ɡ}} |- |{{IPA|pʰ}}||{{IPA|t̪ʰ}}||{{IPA|ʈʰ}}||{{IPA|tʃʰ}}||{{IPA|kʰ}} |- |{{IPA|bʱ}}||{{IPA|d̪ʱ}}||{{IPA|ɖʱ}}||{{IPA|dʒʱ}}||{{IPA|ɡʱ}} |- |{{IPA|m}}||{{IPA|n}} |- | || || ||{{IPA|ʃ}}||{{IPA|ɦ}} |- | ||{{IPA|ɾ l}}||{{IPA|ɽ}} |- |{{IPA|[w]}}|| || ||{{IPA|[j]}} |} | {| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black" |+Gujarati |- |{{IPA|p}}||{{IPA|t̪}}||{{IPA|ʈ}}||{{IPA|tʃ}}||{{IPA|k}} |- |{{IPA|b}}||{{IPA|d̪}}||{{IPA|ɖ}}||{{IPA|dʒ}}||{{IPA|ɡ}} |- |{{IPA|pʰ}}||{{IPA|t̪ʰ}}||{{IPA|ʈʰ}}||{{IPA|tʃʰ}}||{{IPA|kʰ}} |- |{{IPA|bʱ}}||{{IPA|d̪ʱ}}||{{IPA|ɖʱ}}||{{IPA|dʒʱ}}||{{IPA|ɡʱ}} |- |{{IPA|m}}||{{IPA|n}}||{{IPA|ɳ}} |- |{{IPA|mʱ}}||{{IPA|nʱ}}||{{IPA|ɳʱ}} |- | ||{{IPA|s}}|| ||{{IPA|ʃ}}||{{IPA|ɦ}} |- | ||{{IPA|ɾ l}}||{{IPA|ɭ}} |- | ||{{IPA|ɾʱ lʱ}}|| || |- |{{IPA|w}}|| || ||{{IPA|j}} |} | {| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black" |+Marathi |- |{{IPA|p}}||{{IPA|t̪}}||{{IPA|ʈ}}||{{IPA|ts}}||{{IPA|tʃ}}||{{IPA|k}} |- |{{IPA|b}}||{{IPA|d̪}}||{{IPA|ɖ}}||{{IPA|dz}}||{{IPA|dʒ}}||{{IPA|ɡ}} |- |{{IPA|pʰ}}||{{IPA|t̪ʰ}}||{{IPA|ʈʰ}}|| ||{{IPA|tʃʰ}}||{{IPA|kʰ}} |- |{{IPA|bʱ}}||{{IPA|d̪ʱ}}||{{IPA|ɖʱ}}||{{IPA|dzʱ}}||{{IPA|dʒʱ}}||{{IPA|ɡʱ}} |- |{{IPA|m}}||{{IPA|n}}||{{IPA|ɳ}} |- |{{IPA|mʱ}}||{{IPA|nʱ}} |- | ||{{IPA|s}}|| || ||{{IPA|ʃ}}||{{IPA|ɦ}} |- | ||{{IPA|ɾ l}}||{{IPA|ɭ}} |- | ||{{IPA|ɾʱ lʱ}} |- |{{IPA|w}}|| || ||{{IPA|j}} |- |{{IPA|wʱ}} |} | {| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black" |+Oriya |- |{{IPA|p}}||{{IPA|t̪}}||{{IPA|ʈ}}||{{IPA|tʃ}}||{{IPA|k}} |- |{{IPA|b}}||{{IPA|d̪}}||{{IPA|ɖ}}||{{IPA|dʒ}}||{{IPA|ɡ}} |- |{{IPA|pʰ}}||{{IPA|t̪ʰ}}||{{IPA|ʈʰ}}||{{IPA|tʃʰ}}||{{IPA|kʰ}} |- |{{IPA|bʱ}}||{{IPA|d̪ʱ}}||{{IPA|ɖʱ}}||{{IPA|dʒʱ}}||{{IPA|ɡʱ}} |- |{{IPA|m}}||{{IPA|n}}||{{IPA|ɳ}} |- | ||{{IPA|s}}|| || ||{{IPA|ɦ}} |- | ||{{IPA|ɾ l}}||{{IPA|[ɽ] ɭ}} |- | || ||{{IPA|[ɽʱ]}} |- |{{IPA|[w]}}|| || ||{{IPA|[j]}} |} | {| style="text-align:center; border:1px solid black" |+Sinhalese |- |{{IPA|p}}||{{IPA|t̪}}||{{IPA|ʈ}}||{{IPA|tʃ}}||{{IPA|k |- |{{IPA|b}}||{{IPA|d̪}}||{{IPA|ɖ}}||{{IPA|dʒ}}||{{IPA|ɡ |- |{{IPA|ᵐb}}||{{IPA|ⁿ̪d̪}}||{{IPA|ᶯɖ}}|| ||{{IPA|ᵑɡ}} |- |{{IPA|m}}||{{IPA|n}}|| ||{{IPA|ɲ}}||{{IPA|ŋ}} |- | ||{{IPA|s}}|| || ||{{IPA|ɦ}} |- | ||{{IPA|ɾ l}} |- |{{IPA|w}}|| || ||{{IPA|j}} |} |} ==See also== *[[List of Indo-Aryan languages]] *[[Indo-Aryans]] *[[Indo-Iranians]] *[[Indo-Aryan migration]] *[[Proto-Vedic Continuity]] *The family of [[Brahmic family|Brahmic]] scripts *[[Linguistic history of India]] *[[Indo-Aryan loanwords in Tamil]] == External links == *[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Ithaca/1335/Lang/prakrit.html&date=2009-10-25+06:04:55 The Indo Aryan languages] *[http://homepage.ntlworld.com/stone-catend/trind.htm Transliteration of Indic Languages & Scripts] (Anthony Stone) *[http://web.mit.edu/rbhatt/www/24.956/l1.pdf Survey of the syntax of the modern Indo-Aryan languages] (Rajesh Bhatt) {{Indo-Iranian languages}} {{Languages of South Asia}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Indo-Aryan Languages}}