Illyrian languages - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

The Illyrian languages are a group of Indo-European languages

Indo-European languages

The Indo-European languages are a family of several hundred related languages and dialects, including most major current languages of Europe, the Iranian plateau, and South Asia and also historically predominant in Anatolia...

that were spoken in the western part of the Balkans

Balkans

The Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...

in former times by groups identified as Illyrians

Illyrians

The Illyrians were a group of tribes who inhabited part of the western Balkans in antiquity and the south-eastern coasts of the Italian peninsula...

: Ardiaei, Delmatae, Pannonii, Autariates, Taulanti (see List of Illyrian tribes). Some sound-changes from Proto-Indo-European

Proto-Indo-European language

The Proto-Indo-European language is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, spoken by the Proto-Indo-Europeans...

to Illyrian and other language features are deduced from what remains of the Illyrian languages, but because there are no examples of ancient Illyrian literature

Literature

Literature is the art of written works, and is not bound to published sources...

surviving (aside from the Messapian

Messapian language

Messapian is an extinct Indo-European language of South-eastern Italy, once spoken in the region of Apulia. It was spoken by the three Iapygian tribes of the region: the Messapians, the Dauni and the Peucetii....

writings if they can be considered Illyrian), it is difficult to clarify its place within the Indo-European language family. Because of the uncertainty, most sources provisionally place Illyrian on its own branch of Indo-European, though its relation to other languages, ancient and modern, continues to be studied.

Classification

The Illyrian languages are part of the Indo-European language family. The relation of the Illyrian languages to other Indo-European languages—ancient and modern—is poorly understood due to the paucity of data and is still being examined. Today, the main source of authoritative information about the Illyrian language consists of a handful of Illyrian words cited in classical sources, and numerous examples of Illyrian anthroponyms, ethnonyms, toponyms and hydronyms.

Given the scarcity of the data it is difficult to identify the sound changes that have taken place in the Illyrian languages; the most widely accepted one is that the Indo-European voiced aspirates /bʰ/, /dʰ/, /gʰ/ became voiced consonants /b/, /d/, /g/.

A grouping of Illyrian with the Messapian language

Messapian language

has been proposed for about a century, but remains an unproven hypothesis. The theory is based on classical sources, archaeology

Archaeology

Archaeology, or archeology , is the study of human society, primarily through the recovery and analysis of the material culture and environmental data that they have left behind, which includes artifacts, architecture, biofacts and cultural landscapes...

and onomastics

Onomastics

Onomastics or onomatology is the study of proper names of all kinds and the origins of names. The words are from the Greek: "ὀνομαστικός" , "of or belonging to naming" and "ὀνοματολογία" , from "ὄνομα" "name". Toponymy or toponomastics, the study of place names, is one of the principal branches of...

. Messapian material culture bears a number of similarities to Illyrian material culture. Some Messapian anthroponyms have close Illyrian equivalents.

A grouping of Illyrian with the Venetic language

Venetic language

Venetic is an extinct Indo-European language that was spoken in ancient times in the North East of Italy and part of modern Slovenia, between the Po River delta and the southern fringe of the Alps....

and Liburnian language

Liburnian language

The Liburnian language is an extinct language which was spoken by the ancient Liburnians, who occupied Liburnia in classical times. The Liburnian language is reckoned as an Indo-European language, in the Centum group. Alternative speculations place it on the same Indo-European branch as the Venetic...

, once spoken in northeastern Italy

Italy

Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...

and Liburnia

Liburnia

Liburnia in ancient geography was the land of the Liburnians, a region along the northeastern Adriatic coast in Europe, in modern Croatia, whose borders shifted according to the extent of Liburnian dominance at a given time between 11th and 1st century BC...

respectively, has also been proposed. The consensus now is that Illyrian was quite distinct from Venetic and Liburnian.

Centum vs. Satem

In the absence of sufficient lexical data and texts written in the Illyrian languages, the theories supporting the Centum character of the Illyrian language have been based mainly on the Centum character of the Venetic language, which was thought to be related to Illyrian, in particular regarding Illyrian toponyms and names such as Vescleves, Acrabanus, Gentius, Clausal etc. The relation between Venetic and Illyrian was later discredited and they are no longer considered closely related.

Scholars supporting the Satem character of the Illyrian languages highlight particular toponyms and personal names such as Asamum, Birzinimum Zanatis etc. in which these scholars claim that there is clear evidence of the Satem character of the Illyrian language. They also point to other toponyms including Osseriates derived from /*eghero/ (lake) or Birziminium from PIE /*bherg^h/ or Asamum from PIE /*ak^-mo/ (sharp).

Regarding the Illyrian toponyms and personal names like Vescleves, Acrabanus, Gentius, Clausal, the supporters of the Centum character of the Illyrian language have tried to explain those names through comparison with other old documented IE languages, such as Sanksrit or Ancient Greek or reconstructed PIE. For example, Vescleves has been explained as PIE *wesu-k'leves (of good fame). Also, the name Acrabanus as a compound name has been compared with Ancient Greek /akros/ with no signs of palatalization

Palatalization

In linguistics, palatalization , also palatization, may refer to two different processes by which a sound, usually a consonant, comes to be produced with the tongue in a position in the mouth near the palate....

. or Clausal has been related to /*klew/ (wash, rinse).

In all these cases the supporters of the Centum character of the Illyrian language consider PIE *k^ >/*k/ or PIE *g^>/*g/ followed by an /l/ or /r/ to be evidence of a Centum character of the Illyrian language. However, it has been shown that even in Albanian

Albanian language

Albanian is an Indo-European language spoken by approximately 7.6 million people, primarily in Albania and Kosovo but also in other areas of the Balkans in which there is an Albanian population, including western Macedonia, southern Montenegro, southern Serbia and northwestern Greece...

and Balto-Slavic

Balto-Slavic languages

The Balto-Slavic language group traditionally comprises Baltic and Slavic languages, belonging to the Indo-European family of languages. Baltic and Slavic languages share several linguistic traits not found in any other Indo-European branch, which points to the period of common development...

, which are Satem languages, in this phonetical position the palatovelars have been generally depalatized (the depalatization of PIE *k^ >*k and *g^>*g before /r/ and /l/ regularly in Albanian).

Even the name Gentius or Genthius does not help to solve the problem since we have two Illyrian forms Genthius and Zanatis. If Gentius or Genthius derives from *g^en- (be born) this is proof of a Centum language, but if the name Zanatis is similarly generated (or from *g^en- know) than we have a Satem language. Another problem related to the name Gentius is the reason that nowadays it can not be stated surely if the initial /G/ of the sources was a palatovelar or a labiovelar.

Taking into account the absence of sufficient data and sometimes the dual nature of their interpretation the Centum/Satem character of the Illyrian language is still uncertain and requires more evidence.

Possible relation to Albanian

Beginning in the 18th century, a number of scholars have claimed that the modern Albanian language

Albanian language

is descended from Illyrian. However, the Illyrian data, consisting mainly of hydronyms, toponyms, and personal names (some of them dubious and disputed) and appearing in no inscriptions, may not be sufficient to sustain any clear identification of linguistic affinities.

Cognates with Albanian

mal, "mountain"; cf. Alb mal
bardi, "white"; cf. Alb bardhë
drenis, "deer"; cf. Alb dre, dreni
delme (sheep); cf. Alb dele (sheep)
dard, "pear"; cf. Alb dardhë
sīca, "dagger"; cf. Alb thikë or thika "knife"
Ulc-, "wolf" (pln. Ulcinium); cf. Alb ujk "wolf":
brisa, "husk of grapes"; cf. Alb bërsí "lees, dregs; mash" (< PA *brutiā)
loúgeon, "pool"; cf. Alb lag, legen "to wet, soak, bathe, wash" (< PA *lauga), lëgatë "pool" (< PA *leugatâ), lakshte "dew" (< PA laugista)
mantía "bramblebush"; Old and dial. Alb mandë "berry, mulberry" (mod. Alb mën, man)
rhinos, "fog, mist"; cf. OAlb ren "cloud" (mod. Alb re, rê) (< PA *rina)

Illyrian dialects

The Greeks were the first literate people to come into frequent contact with the speakers of Illyrian languages. Their conception of "Illyroi", however, differed from what the Romans would later call "Illyricum". The Greek term encompassed only the peoples who lived on the borders of Macedonia and Epirus

Epirus

The name Epirus, from the Greek "Ήπειρος" meaning continent may refer to:-Geographical:* Epirus - a historical and geographical region of the southwestern Balkans, straddling modern Greece and Albania...

. Pliny the Elder

Pliny the Elder

Gaius Plinius Secundus , better known as Pliny the Elder, was a Roman author, naturalist, and natural philosopher, as well as naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and personal friend of the emperor Vespasian...

, in his work Natural History, applies a stricter usage of the term Illyrii when speaking of Illyrii proprie dicti ("Illyrians properly so-called") among the native communities in the south of Roman Dalmatia.

For a couple of centuries before and after the Roman conquest in the late 1st century BC, the concept of Illyricum expanded towards the west and north. Finally it encompassed all native peoples from the Adriatic to the Danube, inhabiting the Roman provinces of Dalmatia

Dalmatia

Dalmatia is a historical region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. It stretches from the island of Rab in the northwest to the Bay of Kotor in the southeast. The hinterland, the Dalmatian Zagora, ranges from fifty kilometers in width in the north to just a few kilometers in the south....

, Pannonia

Pannonia

Pannonia was an ancient province of the Roman Empire bounded north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, and southward with Dalmatia and upper Moesia....

and Moesia

Moesia

Moesia was an ancient region and later Roman province situated in the Balkans, along the south bank of the Danube River. It included territories of modern-day Southern Serbia , Northern Republic of Macedonia, Northern Bulgaria, Romanian Dobrudja, Southern Moldova, and Budjak .-History:In ancient...

, regardless of their ethnic and cultural differences. A passage in Appian

Appian

Appian of Alexandria was a Roman historian of Greek ethnicity who flourished during the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius.He was born ca. 95 in Alexandria. He tells us that, after having filled the chief offices in the province of Egypt, he went to Rome ca. 120, where he practised as...

's Illyrike stating that the Illyrians lived beyond Macedonia and Thrace

Thrace

Thrace is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe. As a geographical concept, Thrace designates a region bounded by the Balkan Mountains on the north, Rhodope Mountains and the Aegean Sea on the south, and by the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara on the east...

, from Chaonia

Chaonia

Chaonia or Chaon was the name of the northwestern part of Epirus, the homeland of the Greek tribe of the Chaonians. Its main town was called Phoenice. According to Virgil, Chaon was the eponymous ancestor of the Chaonians....

and Thesprotia

Thesprotia

Thesprotia is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the Epirus region. Its capital is the town of Igoumenitsa. It is named after the Thesprotians, an ancient Greek tribe that inhabited the region in antiquity.-History:...

to the Danube River, is representative of the broader usage of the term.

An extensive study of Illyrian names and territory was undertaken by Hans Krahe

Hans Krahe

Hans Krahe was a German philologist and linguist, specializing over many decades in the Illyrian languages. He was born at Gelsenkirchen....

in the first decades of the twentieth century. He and other scholars argued for a broad distribution of Illyrian peoples considerably beyond the Balkans

Balkans

The Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...

though in his later work, Krahe curbed his view of the extent of Illyrian settlement.

The further refinements of Illyrian onomastic provinces for that Illyrian area included in the later Roman province were proposed by Géza Alföldy

Géza Alföldy

Géza Alföldy was a Hungarian Ancient historian.-Life:Géza Alföldy was born in Budapest. He studied at the University of Budapest from 1953 to 1958, where he in 1959 received a doctorate...

. He identified five principal groups: (1) "real Illyrians" south of the river Neretva and extending south of the provincial boundary with Macedonia at the river Drin to include the Illyris of north and central Albania; (2) the Delmatae who occupied the middle Adriatic coast between the "real Illyrians" and the Liburni; (3) the Venetic Liburni of the northeast Adriatic; (4) the Japodes who dwelt north of the Delmatae and behind Liburni, where names reveal a mixture of Venetic, Celtic and Illyrian; and (5) the Pannonian people north in Bosnia, Northern Montenegro, and western Serbia.

These identifications were later challenged by Radoslav Katičić

Radoslav Katicic

Radoslav Katičić is a Croatian linguist, classical philologist, Indo-Europeanist, Slavist and Indologist, one of the most prominent Croatian scholars in the field of humanities.-Biography:...

who on the basis of personal names which occur commonly in Illyricum distinguished three dialect areas: (1) South-Eastern Illyrian, extending southwards from the southern part of Montenegro and including most of Albania west of the river Drin, though its demarcation to the south remains uncertain; (2) Central Illyrian consisting of most of ex-Yugoslavia, north of southern Montenegro to the west of Morava, excepting ancient Liburnia in the northwest, but perhaps extending into Pannonia in the north; (3) Liburnian, whose names resemble those of the Venetic territory to the northeast.

The onomastic differences between the South-Eastern and Central areas are not sufficient to show that two clearly differentiated dialects of Illyrian were in use in these areas. However, as Katičić has argued, the core onomastic area of Illyrian proper is to be located in the southeast of that Balkan region, traditionally associated with the Illyrians (centered in modern Albania).

Illyrian vocabulary

Since there are no Illyrian texts, sources for identifying Illyrian words have been identified by Hans Krahe as being of four kinds: inscriptions, glosses of Illyrian words in classical texts, names—including proper names (mostly inscribed on tombstones), toponyms and river names—and Illyrian loanwords in other languages. The last category has proven particularly contentious. The names occur in sources that range over more than a millennium, including numismatic evidence, as well as posited original forms of placenames. There are no Illyrian inscriptions (Messapian inscriptions are treated separately, and there is no consensus that they are to be reckoned as Illyrian). The spearhead found at Kovel

Kovel

Kovel is a city located in the Volyn Oblast , in northwestern Ukraine. Serving as the administrative center of the Kovelskyi Raion , the city itself is also designated as a separate raion within the oblast. The current estimated population is around 65,777.Kovel gives its name to one of the...

and thought by some to be Illyrian is considered by the majority of runologists to be Eastern Germanic, and most likely Gothic, while a votive inscription on a ring found near Shkodër

Shkodër

Shkodër , is a city located on Lake of Shkoder in northwestern Albania in the District of Shkodër, of which it is the capital. It is one of the oldest and most historic towns in Albania, as well as an important cultural and economic centre. Shkodër's estimated population is 90,000; if the...

which was initially interpreted as Illyrian was shown to actually be Byzantine Greek.

Only a few Illyrian words are cited in classical sources by Roman or Greek writers, and of these only four are identified with an ethnonym Illyrii or Illurioí; others must be identified by indirect means:

	attestation	English meaning	etymology Etymology Etymology is the study of the history of words, their origins, and how their form and meaning have changed over time.For languages with a long written history, etymologists make use of texts in these languages and texts about the languages to gather knowledge about how words were used during...	cognate Cognate In linguistics, cognates are words that have a common etymological origin. This learned term derives from the Latin cognatus . Cognates within the same language are called doublets. Strictly speaking, loanwords from another language are usually not meant by the term, e.g... s
*abeis		"snakes"	PIE *engʷhis	Lat. anguis, Old High Germ. unc, Lith. angìs, Gk. óchis "snake", echis "viper", Toch. auk "snake", Arm. auj, Russ. už, Skt. áhis, Av. aži
*bagaron		"warm"	PIE *bhōg-	Alb. bukë/buka "bread", Phrygian bekos "bread", Eng. bake, Lat. focus "hearth", Old Ir. goba "blacksmith", Gk. phōgein "to roast", Armenian bosor "red", bots "flame"
*brisa		"husk of grapes"	PIE *bhruti̯eh₂	Alb. bërsí "lees, dregs; mash", Eng. broth, Lat. defrutum "new wine boiled down", Welsh brwd "brewage", Old Ir. bruth "heat, wrath", Thrac. brỹtos "barley alcohol", brỹtion "wine must", Gk. apéphrysen "to seethe, boil"
*deuádai		"satyrs"	PIE *dhu̯ésmi	Skt. dhūnoti "he shakes", Gk. thýein "to rage, seethe", théeion "sulfur vapor", Eng. dizzy, Old Eng. dwæs "foolish", Paeonian Dýalos "Dionysos", Lat. furere "to rage", belua "wild animal", Old Ir. dásacht "rage, fury", Lith. dvesiù "to perish, die (animals)", Hitt. tuhhai "to gasp"
*mandos		"small horse"	PIE *mendi̯os	Alb. mëz, mâz "poney", Thrac. Mezēnai "divine horseman", Mess. Iuppiter Menzanas (divinity)
*mantía		"bramblebush"	PIE *	Old and dial. Alb. mandë, mod. Alb. mën, man "berry, mulberry"
*rinos		"fog, mist"	PIE *h₁rinéh_xti	Old Alb. ren, mod. Alb. re, rê "cloud", rij, rî 'to make humid'; further to Gk. (Lesbian) orínein "to move", Old Ch. Slav. rinǫti "to flow", Skt. riṇá-ti "to pour, let flow"
sabaia, sabaium, *sabaius		"a type of beer Beer Beer is the world's most widely consumed andprobably oldest alcoholic beverage; it is the third most popular drink overall, after water and tea. It is produced by the brewing and fermentation of sugars, mainly derived from malted cereal grains, most commonly malted barley and malted wheat... "	PIE *sap-	Alb. shabakohem v. "to party and drink excessively", Eng. sap, Lat. sapere "to taste", Skt. sabar "sap, juice, nektar", Avestan višāpa "having poisonous juices", Arm ham, Gk. hapalós "tender, delicate", Old Ch. Slav. sveptŭ "bee's honey"; borrowed into Lat. and from there into Ital. zabaglione "frothy drink"
sibina (Lat. sibyna* ~ sybina); σιβυνη (Gk.), σιβυνης (Gk.), συβινη (Gk.), ζιβυνη (Gk.)	Festius, citing Ennius Ennius Quintus Ennius was a writer during the period of the Roman Republic, and is often considered the father of Roman poetry. He was of Calabrian descent... is compared to συβηνη (Gk.), "flute case", a word found in Aristophanes Aristophanes Aristophanes , son of Philippus, of the deme Cydathenaus, was a comic playwright of ancient Athens. Eleven of his forty plays survive virtually complete... ' Thesmophoriazusai; the word appears in the context of a barbarian speaking	"a hunting spear", generally, "a spear", "pike Pike (weapon) A pike is a pole weapon, a very long thrusting spear used extensively by infantry both for attacks on enemy foot soldiers and as a counter-measure against cavalry assaults. Unlike many similar weapons, the pike is not intended to be thrown. Pikes were used regularly in European warfare from the... "	PIE *	Alb. thupër "bar, stick", cf. Pers. zôpîn, Arm. səvīn "a spit"
sika (Lat. sica* ~ sicca)	First mentioned in Ennius Ennius Quintus Ennius was a writer during the period of the Roman Republic, and is often considered the father of Roman poetry. He was of Calabrian descent... (Annals, 5.540): Illyrii restant sicis sybinisque fodentes, of Illyrian soldiers; later used in Pliny to describe Thracian implements	"curved knife, dagger"	PIE *k̑eh₁kʷeh_a	Alb. thikë 'knife', Old Ir. cath "wise", Lat. cōs, (gen. cōtis) "whetstone", catus "sharp, acute", Eng. hone, Arm. sur "sharp", srem "to sharpen", Avest. saēni "pot", sal "slab, anvil", Skt. śitá "sharp"; borrowed into Lat. sicca "dagger", Lat. sicarii "assassins"

Some additional words have been extracted by linguists from toponyms, hydronyms, anthroponyms, etc.:

Agruvium "along the coast between Risinum and Butua": IE *aĝr-; cf. Skt. ájraḥ "pasture, field", Lat. ager, Gk. agrós, Goth. akrs
Bindus "river god"; cf. Old Ir. banne "drop", Skt. bindú, vindú "drops, gob, spot", possibly Lat. fōns Bandusiae
Bosona, "Bosna river", literally "running water": IE *bheg-, bhog- "to run"; cf. Old Ch. Slav. bĕžati "to flee, run", Lith. bėgti "to flee", Gk. phébesthai "to flee", phóbos "fear", Alb. boj "to drive, mate", Eng. beck "brook, stream", Middle Ir. búal "flowing water", Hindi bhāg "to flee"
mons Bulsinus, "Büžanim hill": IE *bʰl̥kos; cf. Eng. balk, Middle Ir. blog "piece, fragment", Lat. fulcrum "bedpost", Gk. phálanx "trunk, log", Lith. balžiena "crossbar", Serb. blazína "roof beam", Skt. bhuríjāu "cart arms"
Derbanoí, Anderva: IE *derv; cf. Eng. tree, Alb. dru "wood", Old Ch. Slav. drĕvo "tree", Welsh derw "oak", Gk. dóry "wood, spear", drýs "oak, tree", Lith. derva "pine wood", Hitt. taru "tree, wood', Thrac. taru "spear", Skt. dru "tree, wood", daru "wood, log"
Dizēros, Andízētes: IE *digh; cf. Eng. dough, Gk. teîchos "wall", Lat. fingere "to shape, mold", Old Ir. com-od-ding "he builds, erects", Old Russ. dĕža "kneading trough", Arm. dez "heap", Skt. dehah "body, form"
Domator, personal name; cf. Old Ir. damnaid "he binds, breaks a horse", dam "ox", Eng. tame, dialectal Germ. zamer "ox not under the yoke", Alb. dem "young bull", Lat. domāre "to tame", domitor "tamer", Gk. dámnēmi "to break in", dámalos "calf", Skt. dāmyáti "he is tame; he tames"
Loúgeon: Strabo
Strabo
Strabo, also written Strabon was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher.-Life:Strabo was born to an affluent family from Amaseia in Pontus , a city which he said was situated the approximate equivalent of 75 km from the Black Sea...

in his Geography mentions "a marsh called Lougeon" (which has been identified as Lake Cerknica
Lake Cerknica
Lake Cerknica is an intermittent lake near Cerknica in Inner Carniola, a region of Slovenia. When full, it is the largest lake in the country. It lies in the southern part of the Cerknica Polje...

in Slovenia
Slovenia
Slovenia , officially the Republic of Slovenia , is a country in Central and Southeastern Europe touching the Alps and bordering the Mediterranean. Slovenia borders Italy to the west, Croatia to the south and east, Hungary to the northeast, and Austria to the north, and also has a small portion of...

) by the locals (Illyrian and Celtic tribes), Lougeon being Strabo's rendition of the local toponym into Greek. cf. Alb. lag "to wet, soak, bathe, wash", lëgatë "pool", lug Lith. liűgas "marsh", Old Ch. Slav. luža "pool", Thrac. Lýginos "river name"
stagnus Morsianus "marshlands in Pannonia": IE *merĝ; cf. Middle High Germ. murc "rotten, withered, boggy", Old Ir. meirc "rust", Alb. marth "to shiver, shudder", Lith. markýti "to rust"
Naro: IE *nor; cf. Lith. nãras "diving duck", Russ. norá "hole", Serbo-Croat. po-nor "abyss"
Nedinum: IE *ned; cf. Skt. nadas "roarer"
Oseriates, "lakes": IE *h₁eĝʰero; cf. Serb-Croat. jȅzero, Latvian ȩzȩrs, Gk. Achérōn "river in the underworld"
Pelso (Latin authors referred to modern Lake Balaton
Lake Balaton
Lake Balaton is a freshwater lake in the Transdanubian region of Hungary. It is the largest lake in Central Europe, and one of its foremost tourist destinations. As Hungary is landlocked , Lake Balaton is often affectionately called the "Hungarian Sea"...

as "lacus Pelso", Pelso being a hydronym from the local inhabitants), Pelso apparently meant "deep" or "shallow": IE *pels-; cf. Czech pleso "deep place in a river, lake", Welsh bwlch "crack", Arm. pelem "to dig"
Tergitio, "merchant"; Alb. tregtar (from treg, market), cf. Old Ch. Slav. trĭgŭ (Serbo-Croat tȑg) "market", Latv. tirgus, Swed. torg. This group is considered to be cognate with the Italian city name of Trieste
Teuta, Teutana: IE *teuta- "people"; cf. Lith. tauta "people", Germ. Deutsch "German", Old Eng. theod "people", Old Ir. túath "clan", Umbrian tota "people", Oscan touto "city", Hitt. tuzzi "army"
Tómaros, Tomorr mountain; cf. Old Ir. temel "darkness", Middle Ir. teimen "dark grey", Old High Germ. demar "darkness", dinstar "dark", Lat. tenebrae "darkness", temere "by chance, rashly", Skt. tamas "darkness", tamsrah "dark", Old Ch. Slav. tima "darkness"
Ulcisus mons, Ulcinium (city), Ulcisia castra; cf. Eng. wolf, Old Alb. ulk, Alb. ujk, Avestan vəhrkō, Persian
Persian language
Persian is an Iranian language within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan and countries which historically came under Persian influence...

gurg, Skt. vṛkas, Old Ch. Slav. vlŭkŭ, Russ. volcica, Lith. vil̃kas, Lat. lupus, Gk. lýkos
Volcos, river name in Pannonia; cf. Old Ir. folc "heavy rain, wet weather", Welsh golchi "to wash", obsolete Eng. welkin "cloud", Old High Germ. welk "moist", Old Ch. Slav. vlaga "moisture, plant juice", vŭlgŭkŭ "wet", Latv val̃gums "wetness", Alb ulmej "to dampen, wet"

Illyrian anthroponyms

The following anthroponyms derive from Illyrian or are not yet connected with another language unless noted, such as the Delmatae names of Liburnian

Liburnian language

origin. Alföldy identified five principal onomastic provinces within the Illyrian area: 1) the "real" Illyrians south of the river Neretva

Neretva

Neretva is the largest river of the eastern part of the Adriatic basin. It has been harnessed and controlled to a large extent by four HE power-plants with large dams and their storage lakes, but it is still recognized for its natural beauty, diversity of its landscape and visual...

in Dalmatia

Dalmatia

and extending south to Epirus

Epirus

; 2) the Delmatae, who occupied the middle Adriatic coast between the "real Illyrians" to the south and the Liburni to the north; 3) the Liburni, a branch of Venetic

Venetic language

in the northeast Adriatic; 4) the Iapodes, who dwelt north of the Delmatae and behind (inland from) the coastal Liburnians; 5) the Pannonians in the northern lands, and in Bosnia, northern Montenegro and Western Serbia. Katičić

Radoslav Katicic

Radoslav Katičić is a Croatian linguist, classical philologist, Indo-Europeanist, Slavist and Indologist, one of the most prominent Croatian scholars in the field of humanities.-Biography:...

does not recognize a separate Pannonian onomastic area, and includes the Pannoni with the Delmatae. Below, names from four of Alföldy's five onomastic areas are listed, Liburnian

Liburnian language

excluded, having been identified as being akin to Venetic

Venetic language

. A Dardani

Dardani

Dardania was the region of the Dardani .Located at the Thraco-Illyrian contact zone, their identification as either an Illyrian or Thracian tribe is uncertain. Their territory itself was not considered part of Illyria by Strabo. The term used for their territory was , while for other tribes had...

an area is also detailed.

South Illyrian

Agirrus
Agron
Andena (f., attested at Dyrrhachium), Andes, Andis
Andis
Andis is a variant of Andes, a personal name popular among the Illyrians inhabiting the territory of what is now Bosnia and Herzegovina, more specifically the southern parts of ancient province of Panonia and much of the northern parts of ancient Dalmatia...

, Andio, Andia
Annaeus/Annaius
Antis (f.)
Ballaios
Ballaios
Ballaios or was an Illyrian king of the Ardiaei. Ballaios was not mentioned by any ancient writers. Ballaios was a powerful and influential king testified by the abundance of his silver and bronze coinage found along both coasts of the Adriatic.His silver issues are rare, but bronze coins occur...
Bardyllis
Bardyllis
Bardyllis was a king of the Dardanian Kingdom and probably its founder.Bardyllis created one of the most powerful Illyrian states, that of the Dardanians...
Bato, Batina, Batouna (perhaps means to strike similar to Latin battuere)
Birkenna
Bircenna
Bircenna was an Illyrian princess and later an Epirote queen.Bircenna was the daughter of Bardylis II of the Dardanian Kingdom. Bircenna was one of the five wives of Pyrrhus of Epirus; she married him around 292 BC...
Blodus, Bledis
Boiken
Boria, Bora
Breigos
Brykos
Cleitus/Kleitos (from Greek
Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek is the stage of the Greek language in the periods spanning the times c. 9th–6th centuries BC, , c. 5th–4th centuries BC , and the c. 3rd century BC – 6th century AD of ancient Greece and the ancient world; being predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek...

)
Daors
Dasius
Dazaios, Dazas, Dazos
Ditus
Epe(n)tinus (attested at Dyrrhachium; the name is adjectival
Adjectival
Adjectival may refer to:* Adjective, a part of speech that modifies a noun or a pronoun* Adjectival noun or sometimes "adjectival", a noun that functions as an adjective, especially in Japanese grammar...

, meaning "from Epetium", a town now known as Strobeč)
Epicadus
Epidius
Genthena, Genthios, Gentius
Gentius
Gentius was the last Illyrian king of the Ardiaean State. The name appears to derive from PIE *g'en- "to beget", cognate to Latin gens, gentis "kin, clan, race". He was the son of Pleuratus III, a king who kept relations with Rome very strong...
Glaukias (from Greek)
Glavus
Grabos
Grabos
Grabos was an Illyrian king of the Grabaei State. Grabos also spelt Grabus, was the most powerful Illyrian king after the death of Bardyllis in 358 BC...
Laiscus
Madena
Messor
Monunius
Monunius
Monunius was an Illyrian king of the Dardanian State. As a figure, Monunius has left more archaeological traces than historical ones. Monunius was a strong opponent of Macedonia but offered aid of 10,000 soldiers to Ptolemy during the Gallic Invasions, which was refused. The Dardanian State headed...
Mytilus
Mytilus
Mytilus was an Illyrian king of the Dardanian Kingdom. Mytilus is probably the son of Monunius.Mytilus is the second Illyrian monarch to have struck in 270 BC coins bearing his name after Monunius...
Pinnes
Pleuratus
Pladomenus
Plare(n)s
Plator
Plator
Plator the Illyrian was brother to Gentius and it is assumed that he was killed because he wanted to marry Etuta in 169 BC. She was the daughter of Monunius and was married to Gentius himself....

(in Liburnian
Liburnian language
The Liburnian language is an extinct language which was spoken by the ancient Liburnians, who occupied Liburnia in classical times. The Liburnian language is reckoned as an Indo-European language, in the Centum group. Alternative speculations place it on the same Indo-European branch as the Venetic...

as Plaetor; Venetic
Venetic language
Venetic is an extinct Indo-European language that was spoken in ancient times in the North East of Italy and part of modern Slovenia, between the Po River delta and the southern fringe of the Alps....

Plaetorius, cp. Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...

Plaetorius
Plaetoria (gens)
Plaetorius was the family name of a plebeian gens in ancient Rome.-Roman Republic:Plaetorii are noted as holding office during the Republic from the 2nd century BC through the civil wars of the 40s BC...

)
Posantio
Pravaius
Scerdis
Skerdilaidas
Tatta
Temus, Temeia
Teuda
Teuta, Teutana means Queen in Illyrian.
Tito, Titus (also the Illyrian name of the river Krka
Krka
Krka is the name for several rivers :* Krka , tributary of the Adriatic Sea in Croatia* Krka , tributary of the Sava in Slovenia* Gurk River , tributary of the Drava in AustriaOther meanings:...

)
Vendes
Verzo
Zanatis
Ziraeus

Delmatae

Hundreds of Delmatae names have been recorded. Characteristic names include:

Aplis, Apludus, Aplus, Aplius
Apurus
Baezo
Beusas, Beuzas
Curbania
Cursulavia
Iato
Lavincia
Ledrus
Messor
Paio, Paiio
Panes, Panias, Panius (or Pantus, inscription unclear), Panentius
Pant(h)ia/Panto (f.)
Pinsus
Pladomenus
Platino
Samuntio
Seio, Seiio
Statanius, Staticus, Stato, Status
Sestus, Sextus, Sexto
Tito
Tizius
Tritus
Var(r)o

Delmatae names in common with the Pannoni (some also occur among the south Illyrians):

Bardurius.
Bato
Carius
Dasantilla
Dasas, Dazas
Dasto
Plator, Platino
Scenobarbus, Scenobardos (?)
Verzo
Verzulus

Some Delmatae names probably originate from the Liburnians

Liburnian language

. This conclusion is based on the Liburnian suffixes: -icus, -ica, -ocus, -ico; and from the distribution of the names among the Liburni/Veneti, and from their absence or scarcity in other onomastic areas:

Acenica
Clevata
Darmocus
Germanicus (the native Delmatae stem Germanus, Germus, with the Venetic/Liburnian -icus suffix)
Labrico
Lunnicus
Melandrica
Turus

From the southern Illyrians, the names Boria, Epicadus, Laedicalius, Loiscus, Pinnes and Tato and some others are present. From the Iapodes, Diteio and Ve(n)do, and a few names of Celtic

Celtic languages

The Celtic languages are descended from Proto-Celtic, or "Common Celtic"; a branch of the greater Indo-European language family...

origin (not shown here).

Pannoni

Some names attested among the Pannoni:

Bato (also common among the Delmatae)
Dasas, Dasius (also common among the Delmatae)
Scenobarbus (also common among the Delmatae)
Carvus
Laidus
Liccaius
Plator
Temans
Tueta
Varro
Verzo

The following names are confined to the Pannonian onomastic province:

Arbo
Arsa (possibly Thacian)
Callo
Daetor
Iauletis (genitive)
Pirusta
Proradus
Scirto
Vietis (genitive)

Northern Pannoni:

Bato
Breucus
Dases
Dasmenus
Licco
Liccaius

Names attested among the Colapiani, an Illyric tribe of Pannonia:

Bato
Cralus
Liccaius
Lirus
Plassarus

Among the Jasi: Scenus. The Breuci: Scilus Bato (first and last name), Blaedarus, Dasmenus, Dasius, Surco, Sassaius, Liccaius, Lensus. The Amantini

Amantini

Amantini was the name of an Pannonian Illyrian tribe.They greatly resisted the Romans but were sold as slaves after their defeat.The Amantini were close to Sirmium but the tribe was probably present in southern areas as well due to the existence of a city name Amantia.This would make the south...

, the Scordisci

Scordisci

The Scordisci were an Iron Age tribe centered in the territory of present-day Serbia, at the confluence of the Savus , Dravus and Danube rivers. They were historically notable from the beginning of the third century BC until the turn of the common era...

: Terco, Precio, Dases, Dasmenus.

Illyrian theonyms

The following names of gods (theonyms) derive from possibly several languages (Liburnian, Illyrian, etc.) and are names of gods worshipped by the Illyrians. We must note that they are known through Interpretatio romana and their names may have been corrupted.

Anzotica
Armatus
Bindus
Boria
Eia
Ica
Iria
Latra
Malesocus
Medaurus
Sentona
Thana
Vidasus

External influences

The Ancient Greek

Ancient Greek

Ancient Greek is the stage of the Greek language in the periods spanning the times c. 9th–6th centuries BC, , c. 5th–4th centuries BC , and the c. 3rd century BC – 6th century AD of ancient Greece and the ancient world; being predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek...

language would have become an important external influence on Illyrian-speakers who occupied lands adjacent to ancient Greek colonies, mainly on the Adriatic coast. The Taulantii

Taulantii

Taulantii was the name of a cluster of Illyrian tribes. According to Greek mythology Taulas , one of the six sons of Illyrius, was the eponymous ancestor of the Taulanti. They lived on the Adriatic coast of Illyria , between to the vicinity of the city of Epidamnus...

and the Bylliones had, according to Strabo

Strabo

Strabo, also written Strabon was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher.-Life:Strabo was born to an affluent family from Amaseia in Pontus , a city which he said was situated the approximate equivalent of 75 km from the Black Sea...

, become bilingual. Invading Celts who settled on lands occupied by Illyrians brought the Illyrians into contact with the Celtic languages

Celtic languages

The Celtic languages are descended from Proto-Celtic, or "Common Celtic"; a branch of the greater Indo-European language family...

and some tribes were Celticized

Celticization

Celticization is a supposed mechanism of the spread of the Celts and the Celtic languages in Iron Age Europe.During the first millennium BC, the early Celts expanded from a core territory in Central Europe to Iberia, the British Isles and later also the Balkans, and are assumed to have "Celticized"...

especially those in Dalmatia

Dalmatia

and the Pannoni. Intensive contact may have happened in what is now Bosnia

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina , sometimes called Bosnia-Herzegovina or simply Bosnia, is a country in Southern Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula. Bordered by Croatia to the north, west and south, Serbia to the east, and Montenegro to the southeast, Bosnia and Herzegovina is almost landlocked, except for the...

, Croatia

Croatia

Croatia , officially the Republic of Croatia , is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic in Europe at the crossroads of the Mitteleuropa, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. The country is divided into 20 counties and the city of Zagreb. Croatia covers ...

, and Serbia

Serbia

Serbia , officially the Republic of Serbia , is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Carpathian basin and the central part of the Balkans...

. Due to this intensive contact, and because of conflicting classical sources, it is unclear whether some ancient tribes were Illyrian or Celtic (ex: Scordisci

Scordisci

). or mixed in varying degree. Thracians

Thracians

The ancient Thracians were a group of Indo-European tribes inhabiting areas including Thrace in Southeastern Europe. They spoke the Thracian language – a scarcely attested branch of the Indo-European language family...

and Paeonians also occupied lands populated by Illyrians, bringing Illyrians into contact with the Thracian language

Thracian language

The Thracian language was the Indo-European language spoken in ancient times in Southeastern Europe by the Thracians, the northern neighbors of the Ancient Greeks. The Thracian language exhibits satemization: it either belonged to the Satem group of Indo-European languages or it was strongly...

and Paeonian language.

Celtic

The following Illyrian names, most of which occur in inscriptions from the upper Neretva

Neretva

river valley near Konjic

Konjic

Konjic is a town and municipality in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in northern Herzegovina, around southwest of Sarajevo. It is a mountainous, heavily wooded area, and is above sea level. The municipality extends on both sides of the Neretva River. The town of Konjic, housed about a third...

in Bosnia, derive from Celtic

Celtic languages

The Celtic languages are descended from Proto-Celtic, or "Common Celtic"; a branch of the greater Indo-European language family...

Aioia
Ammida (questionable associations)
Andetia
Argurianus (Thracian or Celtic)
Arvus
Baeta
Belzeius
Bidna
Boio
Bricussa
Cambrius
Catta
Dussona
Enena
Iacus
Iaritus
Kabaletus
Laca
Lautus
Litus
Madusa
Mallaius
Mascelio
Matera (questionable associations)
Matisa
Mellito (Greek and Celtic)
Nantanius
Nantia
Nindia
Nonntio
Pinenta (possible)
Poia
Sarnus
Seius
Seneca (questionable associations)
Sicu
Sinus
Sisimbrius
Totia
Vepus

Thracian

The following names derive from Thracian

Thracian language

Argurianus (Thracian or Celtic)
Auluporis
Auluzon
Bessus
Bithus
Celsinus
Celsus
Cocaius
Daizo
Delus
Dida
Dinentilla
Dizas
Dizo
Dolens
Eptaikenthos
Ettela
Mania
Murco/Moca
Mucatralis
Mucatus
Teres
Torcula
Tzitzis

Greek

The following names may derive from Greek

Greek language

Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...

Agron
Agron (king)
Agron was the greatest king of the Ardiaean Kingdom. The son of Pleuratus, Agron brought about a great revival among the Illyrians; during his reign, the Ardiaean State was not only the most powerful Illyrian state of the time, but also one of the greatest in the Balkans. He succeeded in extending...

, ("ἄγρα", "prey" or "ἀγρός", "wild country")
Ceraunii, tribal exonym, ("Κεραύνιοι, "Thunderbolt-men)"
Cleitus, ("κλειτός", "renowned man")
Enchelei, tribal exonym, ("Ἐγχελεῖς", "Eel-men" from ἔγχελυς "eel")
Glaukias, ("γλαυκός", "gleaming man")
Illyrians
Illyrians
The Illyrians were a group of tribes who inhabited part of the western Balkans in antiquity and the south-eastern coasts of the Italian peninsula...

, (Ἰλλυριοί), tribal exonym
Mellito (Greek and Celtic), ("μελλιτόεις", "like honey")
Plator
Plator
Plator the Illyrian was brother to Gentius and it is assumed that he was killed because he wanted to marry Etuta in 169 BC. She was the daughter of Monunius and was married to Gentius himself....

, ("Πλάτων", "wide man")
Pleuratus
Pleuratus
Pleuratus I was an Illyrian king of the Taulantii State. Pleuratus was the father of Glaucias...

, ("πλευρά", 'side')
Thana, ("θάνατος", "death")

Extinction

The Illyrian languages were likely extinct between the 2nd and 6th centuries AD. However, it is also possible that Illyrian was preserved and spoken in the countryside as attested in the 4th-5th century testimonies of St. Jerome.

External links

The source of this article is wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. The text of this article is licensed under the GFDL.

Classification

Centum vs. Satem

Possible relation to Albanian

Cognates with Albanian

Illyrian dialects

Illyrian vocabulary

Illyrian anthroponyms

South Illyrian

Delmatae

Pannoni

Illyrian theonyms

External influences

Celtic

Thracian

Greek

Extinction

See also

External links