Illinois language
Encyclopedia
The Miami-Illinois language (Miami-Illinois: Myaamia mjɑːmia) is a Native American Algonquian
language formerly spoken in the United States, primarily in Illinois
, Missouri
, Indiana
, western Ohio
and adjacent areas along the Mississippi River
by the tribes of the Inoca or Illinois Confederacy, including the Kaskaskia
, Peoria
, Tamaroa
, Cahokia
, and Mitchigamea
. Since the 1990s the Miami Tribe of Oklahoma
has worked to revive it in a joint project with Miami University
in Oxford, Ohio
.
within the larger Algic language family. The name "Miami-Illinois" is a cover term for a cluster of highly similar dialects, the primary ones being Miami proper, Peoria, Wea, Piankeshaw, and, in the older Jesuit records, Illinois. About half of the surviving several hundred speakers were displaced in the 19th century from their territories, eventually settling in northeastern Oklahoma
as the Miami Nation and the Peoria Tribe
. The remainder of the Miami stayed behind in northern Indiana
.
The language was documented in written materials for over 200 years. Jacques Gravier
, a Jesuit missionary
who lived among the Kaskaskia tribe in the early 18th century, compiled an extensive and detailed Kaskaskia–French dictionary. Based on an analysis of its handwriting, it appears to have been transcribed by his assistant, Jacques Largillier.
Gravier's dictionary contained nearly 600 pages and 20,000 entries. It is the "most extensive of several manuscripts" which French missionaries made of the Illinois languages. The original document is held by Trinity College
in Hartford, Connecticut
. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the Illinois were subject to extermination by hostile tribes, as well as encroachment by European settlers. The French abandoned the Kaskaskia mission.
Eventually many survivors went to the Indian Territory
, where the group became known as the Peoria
. Others among the Illinois remained in historic territory of present-day Indiana. Because of the decline among the number of Miami-Illinois speakers, the language was not studied as extensively as some Native American families. It was not until 2002 that the manuscript was edited and published, by Carl Masthay.
The linguist David Costa (2003) notes that “the original Proto-Algonquian consonants *p, *t, *k, * ʧ, *s, *ʃ, *h, *m, *n, *w, *j remain largely unchanged.”
Costa (2003) notes that “/a/ is a low non-front vowel however it can also be pronounced as a [ʌ] by some speakers. /o/ is a back round vowel ranging from [o] through [ʊ] to [u]. /e/ is a non-high front vowel ranging from [æ] through [ɛ] to [e]. Finally, /i/ is a high front vowel ranging from [ɪ] to [i].” These differences can occur from speaker to speaker and also from word to word.
because there are no longer people who speak Miami as a first language
. But, since the mid-1990s, the Miami Tribe of Oklahoma
has embarked on a strong language reclamation
program . Many Miami members have described the language as "sleeping" rather than "extinct" since it was not irretrievably lost.
The Myaamia Project for Language Revitalization and Cultural Awareness is a joint venture between the tribe and Miami University
. It is directed by Daryl Baldwin, who taught himself Miami from historic documents and studies and has developed educational programs. Project members have been translating missionary documents and publishing Miami culture and language materials.
The latter includes the following:
The revitalization effort was aided by the work of linguist David Costa. Based on his extensive studies, he published The Miami-Illinois Language in 1994 as his Ph.D. dissertation and as a book in 2003. The book reconstructs the Miami-Illinois language and all its grammatical features. A related project at Miami University is one on ethnobotany
, which "pairs Miami-language plant names with elders' descriptions of traditional plant-gathering techniques."
Algonquian languages
The Algonquian languages also Algonkian) are a subfamily of Native American languages which includes most of the languages in the Algic language family. The name of the Algonquian language family is distinguished from the orthographically similar Algonquin dialect of the Ojibwe language, which is a...
language formerly spoken in the United States, primarily in Illinois
Illinois
Illinois is the fifth-most populous state of the United States of America, and is often noted for being a microcosm of the entire country. With Chicago in the northeast, small industrial cities and great agricultural productivity in central and northern Illinois, and natural resources like coal,...
, Missouri
Missouri
Missouri is a US state located in the Midwestern United States, bordered by Iowa, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Kansas and Nebraska. With a 2010 population of 5,988,927, Missouri is the 18th most populous state in the nation and the fifth most populous in the Midwest. It...
, Indiana
Indiana
Indiana is a US state, admitted to the United States as the 19th on December 11, 1816. It is located in the Midwestern United States and Great Lakes Region. With 6,483,802 residents, the state is ranked 15th in population and 16th in population density. Indiana is ranked 38th in land area and is...
, western Ohio
Ohio
Ohio is a Midwestern state in the United States. The 34th largest state by area in the U.S.,it is the 7th‑most populous with over 11.5 million residents, containing several major American cities and seven metropolitan areas with populations of 500,000 or more.The state's capital is Columbus...
and adjacent areas along the Mississippi River
Mississippi River
The Mississippi River is the largest river system in North America. Flowing entirely in the United States, this river rises in western Minnesota and meanders slowly southwards for to the Mississippi River Delta at the Gulf of Mexico. With its many tributaries, the Mississippi's watershed drains...
by the tribes of the Inoca or Illinois Confederacy, including the Kaskaskia
Kaskaskia
The Kaskaskia were one of about a dozen cognate tribes that made up the Illiniwek Confederation or Illinois Confederation. Their longstanding homeland was in the Great Lakes region...
, Peoria
Peoria (tribe)
The Peoria people are a Native American tribe. Today they are enrolled in the federally recognized Peoria Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma. Historically, they were part of the Illinois Confederation.-History:...
, Tamaroa
Tamaroa (tribe)
The Tamaroa were a Native American tribe in the central Mississippi River valley of North America, and a member of the Illiniwek or Illinois Confederacy of twelve to thirteen tribes....
, Cahokia
Cahokia
Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site is the area of an ancient indigenous city located in the American Bottom floodplain, between East Saint Louis and Collinsville in south-western Illinois, across the Mississippi River from St. Louis, Missouri. The site included 120 human-built earthwork mounds...
, and Mitchigamea
Mitchigamea
Mitchigamea or Michigamea or Mitchigamie were a tribe in the Illinois Confederation. Not much is known about them and their origin is uncertain. Originally they were said to be from the Lake Michigan, perhaps the Chicago area...
. Since the 1990s the Miami Tribe of Oklahoma
Miami Tribe of Oklahoma
The Miami Tribe of Oklahoma is a federally recognized Native American tribe of Miami Indians.-History:The Miami Tribe of Oklahoma is Eastern Woodland tribe, who traditionally spoke the Miami-Illinois language, a language of the Algonquin family, but few tribal members speak the language today...
has worked to revive it in a joint project with Miami University
Miami University
Miami University is a coeducational public research university located in Oxford, Ohio, United States. Founded in 1809, it is the 10th oldest public university in the United States and the second oldest university in Ohio, founded four years after Ohio University. In its 2012 edition, U.S...
in Oxford, Ohio
Oxford, Ohio
Oxford is a city in northwestern Butler County, Ohio, United States, in the southwestern portion of the state. It lies in Oxford Township, originally called the College Township. The population was 21,943 at the 2000 census. This college town was founded as a home for Miami University. Oxford...
.
History
Miami-Illinois is an Algonquian languageAlgonquian languages
The Algonquian languages also Algonkian) are a subfamily of Native American languages which includes most of the languages in the Algic language family. The name of the Algonquian language family is distinguished from the orthographically similar Algonquin dialect of the Ojibwe language, which is a...
within the larger Algic language family. The name "Miami-Illinois" is a cover term for a cluster of highly similar dialects, the primary ones being Miami proper, Peoria, Wea, Piankeshaw, and, in the older Jesuit records, Illinois. About half of the surviving several hundred speakers were displaced in the 19th century from their territories, eventually settling in northeastern Oklahoma
Oklahoma
Oklahoma is a state located in the South Central region of the United States of America. With an estimated 3,751,351 residents as of the 2010 census and a land area of 68,667 square miles , Oklahoma is the 28th most populous and 20th-largest state...
as the Miami Nation and the Peoria Tribe
Peoria (tribe)
The Peoria people are a Native American tribe. Today they are enrolled in the federally recognized Peoria Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma. Historically, they were part of the Illinois Confederation.-History:...
. The remainder of the Miami stayed behind in northern Indiana
Indiana
Indiana is a US state, admitted to the United States as the 19th on December 11, 1816. It is located in the Midwestern United States and Great Lakes Region. With 6,483,802 residents, the state is ranked 15th in population and 16th in population density. Indiana is ranked 38th in land area and is...
.
The language was documented in written materials for over 200 years. Jacques Gravier
Jacques Gravier
Jacques Gravier was a French Jesuit missionary in the New World. He founded the Illinois mission in 1696, where he administered to the several tribes of the territory...
, a Jesuit missionary
Missionary
A missionary is a member of a religious group sent into an area to do evangelism or ministries of service, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care and economic development. The word "mission" originates from 1598 when the Jesuits sent members abroad, derived from the Latin...
who lived among the Kaskaskia tribe in the early 18th century, compiled an extensive and detailed Kaskaskia–French dictionary. Based on an analysis of its handwriting, it appears to have been transcribed by his assistant, Jacques Largillier.
Gravier's dictionary contained nearly 600 pages and 20,000 entries. It is the "most extensive of several manuscripts" which French missionaries made of the Illinois languages. The original document is held by Trinity College
Trinity College (Connecticut)
Trinity College is a private, liberal arts college in Hartford, Connecticut. Founded in 1823, it is the second-oldest college in the state of Connecticut after Yale University. The college enrolls 2,300 students and has been coeducational since 1969. Trinity offers 38 majors and 26 minors, and has...
in Hartford, Connecticut
Hartford, Connecticut
Hartford is the capital of the U.S. state of Connecticut. The seat of Hartford County until Connecticut disbanded county government in 1960, it is the second most populous city on New England's largest river, the Connecticut River. As of the 2010 Census, Hartford's population was 124,775, making...
. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the Illinois were subject to extermination by hostile tribes, as well as encroachment by European settlers. The French abandoned the Kaskaskia mission.
Eventually many survivors went to the Indian Territory
Indian Territory
The Indian Territory, also known as the Indian Territories and the Indian Country, was land set aside within the United States for the settlement of American Indians...
, where the group became known as the Peoria
Peoria (tribe)
The Peoria people are a Native American tribe. Today they are enrolled in the federally recognized Peoria Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma. Historically, they were part of the Illinois Confederation.-History:...
. Others among the Illinois remained in historic territory of present-day Indiana. Because of the decline among the number of Miami-Illinois speakers, the language was not studied as extensively as some Native American families. It was not until 2002 that the manuscript was edited and published, by Carl Masthay.
Phonology
There is an extensive amount of data on the Miami-Illinois language. David Costa has written extensively on this language although a variety of other individuals have also conducted studies as well. The problem with much of the data collected is that little of it was collected by a trained phonology and thus much of it is incomplete or incorrect. However, Costa has compiled much of this data and corrected it in his book The Miami-Illinois Language.Consonants
The consonants of the Miami-Illinois language are typical to the “Central Algonquian” languages. It contains the voiceless stops and affricate p, t, k, ʧ; voiceless fricatives s, ʃ, h; nasals and liquids m, n, l; and the semivowels w, y.The linguist David Costa (2003) notes that “the original Proto-Algonquian consonants *p, *t, *k, * ʧ, *s, *ʃ, *h, *m, *n, *w, *j remain largely unchanged.”
| Labial Labial consonant Labial consonants are consonants in which one or both lips are the active articulator. This precludes linguolabials, in which the tip of the tongue reaches for the posterior side of the upper lip and which are considered coronals... |
Alveolar Alveolar consonant Alveolar consonants are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior alveolar ridge, which is called that because it contains the alveoli of the superior teeth... |
Palatal | Velar Velar consonant Velars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue against the soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth, known also as the velum).... |
Glottal Glottal consonant Glottal consonants, also called laryngeal consonants, are consonants articulated with the glottis. Many phoneticians consider them, or at least the so-called fricative, to be transitional states of the glottis without a point of articulation as other consonants have; in fact, some do not consider... |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosive | p | t | tʃ | k | ʔ |
| Fricative | s | ʃ | h | ||
| Lateral Lateral consonant A lateral is an el-like consonant, in which airstream proceeds along the sides of the tongue, but is blocked by the tongue from going through the middle of the mouth.... |
l | ||||
| Nasal Nasal consonant A nasal consonant is a type of consonant produced with a lowered velum in the mouth, allowing air to escape freely through the nose. Examples of nasal consonants in English are and , in words such as nose and mouth.- Definition :... |
m | n | |||
| Semivowel Semivowel In phonetics and phonology, a semivowel is a sound, such as English or , that is phonetically similar to a vowel sound but functions as the syllable boundary rather than as the nucleus of a syllable.-Classification:... |
w | j |
Alternations between /s/ and /ʃ/
There a small amount of words in the Miami-Illinois language that have alternations between /s/ and /ʃ/ in their pronunciations. There are also opposite alternations where /ʃ/ occurs instead of /s/. Examples of both of these alternations seem to most prominently show themselves before the vowel /i/. Costa (2003) notes these “examples of words showing /ʃ/ for expected /s/ follow: /apeeh ʃia/, /teekwee ʃita/, and /neeh ʃiaani/”Vowels
Miami-Illinois has four short vowels, /i e a o/ and four long vowels, /iː eː aː oː/.Costa (2003) notes that “/a/ is a low non-front vowel however it can also be pronounced as a [ʌ] by some speakers. /o/ is a back round vowel ranging from [o] through [ʊ] to [u]. /e/ is a non-high front vowel ranging from [æ] through [ɛ] to [e]. Finally, /i/ is a high front vowel ranging from [ɪ] to [i].” These differences can occur from speaker to speaker and also from word to word.
Strong Syllable Rule
The most important rule in the phonology of the vowels of the Miami-Illinois language is the iambic metrical rule, which is referred to by David Costa (2003) as the strong syllable rule (SSR). Syllables in this language are considered either strong or weak depending on whether they occur in an even or odd numbered spot within the word. Counting from left to right, the even numbered syllables are strong and the odd numbered syllables are weak. However, a long vowel is always considered strong and the syllable count is restarted from this point. Anytime a short vowel comes after a long vowel it will always be weak because they count will have started over and it will occur in an even-numbered syllable.Vowel Devoicing Rule
One important rule for the phonology of Miami-Illinois is called the “Vowel Devoicing Rule.” In Miami-Illinois the weak vowels are devoiced any time they occur before a preaspirate. If a short vowel occurs before a preaspirate it will be devoiced if it follows a long vowel. This will also happen if it occurs in an odd-numbered syllable. However, if the vowel is in a strong syllable (or an even-numbered syllable) this rule does not apply. As Costa (2003) states it, “a vowel in an original second syllable can be devoiced only if a long vowel precedes it, thus rendering the vowel odd-numbered for the syllable count.”Accents
Aside from the "Strong Syllable Rule" (Costa, 2003), there is separate system of accenting in the Miami-Illinois language. In this rule, the syllable count begins at the end of the word and goes backwards towards the start of it (unlike the Strong Syllable Rule, which begins at the beginning of the word and goes forwards). Vowels in both weak and strong syllable can be accented. Words in this language are seen to take accents on their final accents, although it is more common for the accent to fall on the penultimate syllables. Costa (2003) notes that "this is the case in all bisyllabic words without a word-medial preaspirate." If a weak syllable is subject to devoicing however, it can not receive an accent. This shows that the devoicing rule comes before the accent rule.Stress
Word stress is not as pronounced in Miami-Illinois as it is in the English language. Vowels in Miami-Illinois are pronounced normally regardless of stress. If an unstressed vowel is pronounced with a [ə] rather than the vowels actual phonological pronunciation, you would either end up saying a completely different word, or you would end up saying a word that does not exist.Language revival
The language is considered extinctExtinct language
An extinct language is a language that no longer has any speakers., or that is no longer in current use. Extinct languages are sometimes contrasted with dead languages, which are still known and used in special contexts in written form, but not as ordinary spoken languages for everyday communication...
because there are no longer people who speak Miami as a first language
First language
A first language is the language a person has learned from birth or within the critical period, or that a person speaks the best and so is often the basis for sociolinguistic identity...
. But, since the mid-1990s, the Miami Tribe of Oklahoma
Miami Tribe of Oklahoma
The Miami Tribe of Oklahoma is a federally recognized Native American tribe of Miami Indians.-History:The Miami Tribe of Oklahoma is Eastern Woodland tribe, who traditionally spoke the Miami-Illinois language, a language of the Algonquin family, but few tribal members speak the language today...
has embarked on a strong language reclamation
Language revival
Language revitalization, language revival or reversing language shift is the attempt by interested parties, including individuals, cultural or community groups, governments, or political authorities, to reverse the decline of a language. If the decline is severe, the language may be endangered,...
program . Many Miami members have described the language as "sleeping" rather than "extinct" since it was not irretrievably lost.
The Myaamia Project for Language Revitalization and Cultural Awareness is a joint venture between the tribe and Miami University
Miami University
Miami University is a coeducational public research university located in Oxford, Ohio, United States. Founded in 1809, it is the 10th oldest public university in the United States and the second oldest university in Ohio, founded four years after Ohio University. In its 2012 edition, U.S...
. It is directed by Daryl Baldwin, who taught himself Miami from historic documents and studies and has developed educational programs. Project members have been translating missionary documents and publishing Miami culture and language materials.
The latter includes the following:
- a children's book of Miami language and culture;
- an audio CD set with vocabulary, phrases, conversation, and the Miami origin story and a companion text; and
- a compilation of traditional stories from the Miami and Peoria tribes, recorded in the early 20th century when the language's last speakers were alive.
The revitalization effort was aided by the work of linguist David Costa. Based on his extensive studies, he published The Miami-Illinois Language in 1994 as his Ph.D. dissertation and as a book in 2003. The book reconstructs the Miami-Illinois language and all its grammatical features. A related project at Miami University is one on ethnobotany
Ethnobotany
Ethnobotany is the scientific study of the relationships that exist between people and plants....
, which "pairs Miami-language plant names with elders' descriptions of traditional plant-gathering techniques."