Hypercorrection

{{About||the psychological use|Compensation (psychology)}} {{IPA notice}} In [[linguistics]] or [[usage]], '''hypercorrection''' is a [[Standard language|non-standard]] usage that results from the over-application of a perceived rule of [[grammar]] or a [[Prescriptive grammar|usage prescription]]. A speaker or writer who produces a hypercorrection generally believes that the form is correct through misunderstanding of these rules, often combined with a desire to seem formal or educated. Linguistic hypercorrection occurs when a real or imagined grammatical rule is applied in an inappropriate context, so that an attempt to be "correct" leads to an incorrect result. Hypercorrection is sometimes found among speakers of less [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestigious]] [[Variety (linguistics)|language varieties]] who produce forms associated with high-prestige varieties, even in situations where speakers of those varieties would not. Some commentators call such production ''hyperurbanism''. == Grammatical hypercorrection == Studies in [[sociolinguistics]] and [[applied linguistics]] have noted the over-application of rules of [[phonology]], [[syntax]], or [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], resulting either from different rules in varieties of the same language or [[second language learning]]. Sociolinguists often note hypercorrection in terms of pronunciation (phonology). For example, [[William Labov]] noted that all of the English speakers he studied in New York city in the 1960s tended to pronounce words such as ''hard'' as [[Rhotic and non-rhotic accents|rhotic]] (that is, {{IPA-en|hɑrd}} rather than {{IPA|/hɑːd/}}) more often when speaking carefully. Furthermore, [[middle class]] speakers had more rhotic pronunciation than [[working class]] speakers did. However, lower-middle class speakers had more rhotic pronunciation than upper-middle class speakers. Labov suggested that these lower-middle class speakers were attempting to emulate the pronunciation of upper-middle class speakers, but were actually over-producing the very noticeable R-sound. A common source of hypercorrection in the morphology and syntax of English is the use of pronouns; see the section ''[[#Personal pronouns|Personal pronouns]]'', below. Hypercorrection can also occur when learners of a second or foreign language try to avoid applying grammatical rules from their native language to the new language (a situation known as [[language transfer]]). The effect can occur, for example, when a student of a new language has learned that certain sounds of his or her original language must usually be replaced by another in the studied language, but has not learned when ''not'' to replace them. == Hypercorrect usage == [[English language|English]] has no authoritative body governing "correct" usage, unlike some other [[language]]s, such as [[French language|French]] ([[Académie française]]), [[Italian language|Italian]] ([[Accademia della Crusca]]), [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] ([[Icelandic Language Institute|Íslensk málstöð]]), and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ([[Real Academia Española]]). Nonetheless, within groups of users of English, certain usages are considered unduly elaborate adherences to "formal" rules. Such speech or writing is sometimes called ''hyperurbanism'', defined by [[Kingsley Amis]] as an "indulged desire to be posher than posh". ===Preposition at the end of a clause=== That an English clause should not end with a [[preposition]] – that a preposition should not be "[[Preposition stranding|stranded]]" – was a "rule" long propounded by prescriptivist grammarians. It was routinely shown up as a fiction not only in conversation but also in literature; it appears to have been invented in 1672 by [[John Dryden]] and uncritically repeated thereafter. [[Winston Churchill]] is often attributed with some variant of the phrase, "this is the kind of tedious nonsense up with which I will not put", in response to a hypercorrective memo. However, it is likely apocryphal, as [[The Churchill Centre]] describes the attribution as "an invented phrase put in Churchill's mouth." The remark is a [[parody]]: the writer went beyond grammatical correctness to mock the refusal to end a clause in a [[preposition]]; he treated not only ''with'' but also ''up'' as a preposition, an analysis accepted by linguists in the 21st century but not one accepted in the 1940s. Both ''up'' and ''with'' would at that time have been considered part of the "[[phrasal verb]]" ''put up with''; whether they are adverbs/particles or prepositions, their placement before the verb "does not demonstrate the absurdity of using [prepositional phrase] fronting instead of stranding; it merely illustrates the ungrammaticality resulting from fronting something that is not a constituent." ===Personal pronouns=== Jack Lynch, [[assistant professor]] of English at [[Rutgers University]], claims that correction of "me and you" to "you and I" as subject leads people to "internalize the rule that 'you and I' is somehow more proper, and they end up using it in places where they shouldn't – such as 'he gave it to you and I' when it should be 'he gave it to you and me.'" On the other hand, the linguists [[Rodney Huddleston]] and [[Geoffrey K. Pullum]] claim that utterances such as "They invited Sandy and I" are "heard constantly in the conversation of people whose status as speakers of Standard English is clear"; and that "Those who condemn it simply assume that the case of a pronoun in a coordination must be the same as when it stands alone. Actual usage is in conflict with this assumption." ==Other languages== {{Unreferenced section|date=November 2009}} Hypercorrection is not peculiar to English. It can occur wherever multiple languages or language varieties are in contact. ===Chinese languages=== In [[Standard Cantonese|Cantonese]], some speakers omit the [[initial (linguistics)|initial]] {{IPA|[ŋ]}}. For instance, the [[Han character|character]] [[wikt:牙#Cantonese|牙]] ({{zh|j=ngaa4}}, meaning "tooth"), ends up being pronounced "aa4." [[Linguistic prescription|Prescriptivists]] tend to consider these changes as substandard and denounce them for being "lazy sounds" ({{zh|c=懶音|j=laan5 jam1}}). However, in a case of hypercorrection, some speakers have started pronouncing words that should have a null initial using an initial {{IPA|[ŋ]}}, even though according to [[historical Chinese phonology]], only words with [[four tones|''light'' tone]]s (which correspond to tones 4, 5, and 6 in [[Jyutping]]) had [[voiced consonant|voiced]] initials (which includes {{IPA|[ŋ]}}). Idiomatically, some words such as 溝(gau1, communication) has evolved to the sound ''kau1'' to avoid embarrassment because gau1 can mean a 'cock' in Cantonese　but some speakers insist on using the 'correct pronunciation' and it may cause ridicule. Words with [[four tones|''dark'' tone]]s (1, 2, and 3 in Jyutping) historically should have unvoiced or null initials. Because of this hypercorrection, words such as [[wikt:愛#Cantonese|愛]] ({{zh|j=oi3}}, meaning "love"), which has a ''dark'' tone, are pronounced by speakers with an {{IPA|[ŋ]}} initial, "ngoi3." Speakers of some accents of [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]], particularly in the south of [[China]] and in [[Taiwan]], pronounce the [[retroflex]] initials {{IPA|[tʂ]}}, {{IPA|[tʂʰ]}} and {{IPA|[ʂ]}} as the [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]] initials {{IPA|[ts]}}, {{IPA|[tsʰ]}}, and {{IPA|[s]}}. Such speakers may hypercorrect by pronouncing words that should start with {{IPA|[ts]}}, {{IPA|[tsʰ]}} and {{IPA|[s]}} as if they started with their retroflex counterparts. In Taiwan, under the influence of [[Taiwanese Minnan|Taiwanese]] ([[Min Nan]]), many people pronounce the initial {{IPA|[f]}} as {{IPA|[x]}}, and often hypercorrect by pronouncing the initial {{IPA|[x]}} as {{IPA|[f]}}. This is also noticeable in the [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]] population, where many words that begin in {{IPA|[x]}} in Mandarin and Taiwanese begin in {{IPA|[f]}} in Hakka. (Examples: [[wikt:火|火]], [[wikt:花|花]]) [[Erhua]] hypercorrection may occur among non-native speakers of rhotic Chinese. ===Bulgarian=== In standard [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and in the eastern dialects, the old [[Yat#Bulgarian|yat]] letter is pronounced as я ("ya") when stressed and the following syllable does not contain the vowels и ("i") or е ("e"), and pronounced as е in all other cases. But in the western dialects it is always pronounced as е. Attempting to speak the standard Bulgarian dialect, some speakers from Western Bulgaria mispronounce many words containing the yat letter – голями ("golyami"), желязни ("zhelyazni"), бяли ("byali"), видяли ("vidyali"), спряни ("spryani"), живяли ("zhivyali") instead of големи ("golemi"), железни ("zhelezni"), бели ("beli"), видели ("videli"), спрени ("spreni"), живели ("zhiveli"). This trend is especially common with past participles such as видяли. ====Palatalization==== Russian speakers sometimes [[palatalization|palatalize]] consonants in loanwords that weren't originally palatized (as {{IPA-ru|mɐˈdʲern|}} instead of {{IPA-ru|mɐˈdɛrn|}} for [[wikt:модерн|модерн]]) under the influence of the spelling. Russian has five so-called hard vowels (а, э, ы, у, о), which follow hard or unpalatized consonants, each with a corresponding soft vowel (я, е, и, ю, ё respectively), which follow soft or palatized consonants. However, the hard vowel [[э]] has [[orthography|orthographic]] limits allowing it to only be written at the beginning of a word or after a vowel (as in the Cyrillic spelling of [[Aeroflot]]). So in many loanwords, the soft vowel [[Ye (Cyrillic)|e]] is written but read as though it were [[э]]. ===Serbo-Croatian=== The syllables ''je'' and ''ije'' appear in the western standard of [[Serbo-Croatian]] (spoken in [[Croatia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Montenegro]] and south-western parts of [[Serbia]]) where the eastern standard (spoken in most of Serbia) has only variation in quantity (length of the vowel) of ''e''. Not every eastern standard ''e'' becomes ''je'' or ''ije'' like in the western. Eastern standard speakers may hypercorrect their dialect by either undersupplying or oversupplying the ''je''s and the ''ije''s. ====Düsseldorf dialect versus Standard German==== In [[German language|German]], the [[dialect]] spoken in the city of [[Düsseldorf]] and its surroundings heavily features the front 'ch' sound (aka the "ich sound", {{IPA|[ç]}}) where [[standard German]] calls for the 'sch' {{IPA|[ʃ]}} sound. Speakers with this accent would say 'Fich' {{IPA|[fɪç]}} instead of '[[wikt:Fisch|Fisch]]' {{IPA|[fɪʃ]}} (fish), and 'Tich' {{IPA|[tɪç]}} instead of '[[wikt:Tisch|Tisch]]' {{IPA|[tɪʃ]}} (table). This is due to a hypercorrection of the [[Rhineland]] accent prevalent in that area of Germany, an accent that often replaces the front 'ch' {{IPA|[ç]}} sound with the 'sch' {{IPA|[ʃ]}} sound. Attempting to avoid this error, speakers of the Düsseldorf accent hypercorrect it to an abundance of 'ch' {{IPA|[ç]}}. ====Genitive versus dative==== Another example is use of the [[genitive case]] where the [[dative case]] is required. Colloquially, the genitive is often dropped in favor of the dative even if correct grammatical usage demands the genitive. Because language critics deride such substitution, some German speakers use the genitive even with prepositions that actually demand the dative (e.g., ''[[wikt:entgegen|entgegen]]'', ''[[wikt:gegenüber|gegenüber]]''), seemingly under the false impression that the genitive is always right and the dative is always wrong, or at least that the genitive is a better form of the dative. ====V / W==== The German letter ''W'' is pronounced the same as the English letter ''V'' {{audio-pipe|Voiced labiodental fricative.ogg|Voiced labiodental fricative|[ v ]}} and the English ''W'' sound {{audio-pipe|Voiced labio-velar approximant.ogg|Voiced labio-velar approximant|[ w ]}} does not exist in German, causing some Germans to hypercorrect ''V''s in English and say ''wodka'' (vodka) or ''willage'' (village). ===Polish=== Polish speakers often replace the voiceless consonant at the word's end (which becomes evident when the word is transformed), e.g. writing and pronouncing the word "dekolt" (neckline) as "dekold" or "gokart" ([[go-kart]]) as "gokard". ===Norwegian=== The French "Entrecôte" and "Pommes frites" are sometimes pronounced without the final "t" sound. ("Antrekå" or "Angtrekå" and "Pommfri" or "Pomfrii".) ===Swedish=== An example of a hypercorrection in [[Swedish language|Swedish]] is the spelling "åtminstonde" for standard Swedish ''åtminstone'' ("at least"), where the pleonastic "d" can be explained as a hypercorrection among speakers who normally reduce the complex "-nd" to {{IPA|/nː/}}. The words 'och' (and) and 'att' (to) can both be pronounced {{IPA|/ɔ/}} in informal speech, which can lead to speakers mistakenly replacing 'att' with 'och' in some situations: "Det ska bli kul och göra" – 'That will be fun and do'. ===Dutch versus West-Flemish=== The local dialects of the [[West-Flanders]] region do not use the Dutch "ch" {{IPA|/x/}} (Northern Dutch pronunciation) or {{IPA|/ç/}} (Southern Dutch pronunciation). Instead they pronounce both 'g' and 'ch' as a soft 'h', whereas the Standard Dutch way to pronounce it would respectively in /ç/ and /ʝ/ in Southern Dutch or both /x/ in Northern Dutch. For example, a West-Fleming would pronounce the phrase 'een gouden hart' (a golden heart) as 'een '''H'''ouden hart'. Some older people, who grew up speaking nothing but their dialect, are unaware that there is a difference between 'g', 'ch' and 'h' altogether and trying to 'mimic' Dutch, they often overcompensate and pronounce ''every'' word they would normally pronounce with a 'h'-sound as a 'g'. This includes words actually pronounced 'h'. In the example above, they would go overboard and pronounce the phrase 'een gouden hart' as 'een gouden '''G'''art'. In a continuing folk tale an unspecified pastor of some unspecified West Flemish church wants to impress his flock by celebrating mass in flawless 'civilized' [[Dutch language|AN]] Dutch. His 'civilized' Dutch consists out of pronouncing a 'ch' and 'g' as the Northern Dutch {{IPA|/x/}} (instead of the 'h' as West-Flemish dialect does). However to be absolutely sure, he also starts pronouncing the 'h' as {{IPA|/x/}} even though he should keep pronouncing it as a 'h'. The effects are hilarious: Instead of praying for "De '''h'''ele kerk" (the whole church) he ends up praying for "de '''g'''ele kerk" (the yellow church) and the holy virgin ("de '''h'''eilige maagd") becomes "de '''g'''eilige maagd" (The virgin in heat). Finally, he ends his sermon in asking what should be "de goede '''h'''ulp van de '''H'''eer" (the good help of the Lord). Instead he asks for "de goede '''g'''ulp van de '''g'''eer" (the good trouser opening of the manure). ===Latin=== In the [[Middle Ages]], the spelling of [[Latin]] was simplified in various respects: for example, ''æ'' and ''oe'' became ''e'', and ''ch'' became ''c''. Occasionally these changes were reversed, and ''e'' and ''c'' were sometimes expanded to ''æ'' (or ''oe'') and ''ch'', even when such spelling contradicted [[Classical Latin]]. For example, ''[[wikt:caelum|caelum]]'' was contracted to ''celum'' and re-expanded to ''coelum''. These spellings are often preserved in English derivatives, including ''[[wikt:et cætera|et cætera]]'' and ''[[wikt:et coetera|et coetera]]'' (occasionally found as variants for ''[[et cetera]]''); ''[[wikt:foetus|foetus]]'' (originally ''[[fetus]]''); ''[[wikt:lachrymose|lachrymose]]'', from ''lachryma'' (a false Hellenisation, originally ''[[wikt:lacrima|lacrima]]'', "a [[Tears|tear]]"); and ''[[wiktionary:schedule|schedule]]'', from ''schedula'' (originally ''scedula''). ===Hebrew and Yiddish=== Careful [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] speakers are taught to avoid the colloquial pronunciation of [[wikt:בדיוק|בדיוק]] (''bediyyuq'', "exactly") as {{IPA|[biˑ.ˈdjuk]}}. Many speakers accordingly pronounce [[wikt:להיות|להיות]] (''lihyot'', "to be") as if it were spelled "lehiyyot" ({{IPA|[lɛˑ.hiˑ.ˈjot]}}), though there is no grammatical justification for doing so. It is well known that the vowel ''[[qamatz gadol]]'', which in the accepted [[Sephardi Hebrew language|Sephardic]] pronunciation is rendered as {{IPA|/aː/}}, becomes {{IPA|/ɔ/}} in [[Ashkenazi Hebrew]] (and therefore in [[Yiddish]]). On the other hand, the vowel ''qamatz qatan'', which is visually indistinguishable from ''qamatz gadol'', is rendered as {{IPA|/o/}} in both pronunciations. This leads to hypercorrections in both directions. #The consistent pronunciation of all forms of ''qamatz'' as {{IPA|/a/}}, disregarding ''qatan'' and ''hataf'' forms, could be seen as a hypercorrection when Hebrew speakers of Ashkenazic origin attempt to pronounce Sephardic Hebrew (e.g. [[wikt:צהרים|צָהֳרָיִם]], "midday" as "''tzaharayim''", rather than "''tzohorayim''" as in standard Israeli pronunciation; the traditional Sephardi pronunciation is "''tzahorayim''"). This may, however, be an example of oversimplification rather than of hypercorrection. #Conversely, many older British Jews consider it more colloquial and "down-home" to say "Shobbes", "cholla" and "motza", though the vowel in these words is in fact a ''[[patach]]'', which is rendered as {{IPA|/a/}} in both Sephardi and Ashkenazi Hebrew. Other hypercorrections occur when speakers of Israeli (based on Sephardic) Hebrew attempt to pronounce Ashkenazi Hebrew, for example for religious purposes. The month of [[Shevat]] ([[wikt:שבט|שבט]]) is mistakenly pronounced "Shvas", as if it were spelled *שְׁבַת. In an attempt to imitate Polish and Lithuanian dialects, ''qamatz'' (both ''gadol'' and ''qatan''), which would normally be pronounced {{IPA|[ɔ]}}, is hypercorrected to the pronunciation of ''holam'', {{IPA|[ɔj]}}, rendering [[wikt:גדול|גדול]] ("large") as ''goydl'' and [[wikt:ברוך|ברוך]] ("blessed") as ''boyrukh''. === Spanish === In some Spanish dialects, intervocalic {{IPA|/d/}} ({{IPA|[ð]}}) is dropped, such as in ''[[wikt:pescado|pescado]]'' (fish), which would typically be pronounced {{IPA|[pesˈkaðo]}} but can be manifested as {{IPA|[pesˈkao]}} dialectically. Speakers sensitive to this variation may insert a {{IPA|/d/}} intervocalically into a word ''without'' such a consonant, such as in the case of ''[[wikt:bacalao|bacalao]]'' (cod), correctly pronounced {{IPA|[bakaˈlao]}} but occasionally hypercorrected to {{IPA|[bakaˈlaðo]}}. And, the same holds true for speakers from areas that do not pronounce the letter "z" or soft "c" with the "th" sound (or "theta") who find themselves in parts of Spain that do use it, they might hypercorrect some words which contain the letter "s", as if it were also a "th". Additionally, in some Spanish dialects, especially in the Caribbean, the "s" sound, (among other letters,) is all but dropped from the end of words, and some speakers from these areas may have a tendency to add an "s" sound, even to words that do not need it. === Hungarian === In Hungarian the suffix -ban/ben indicates location, such as "házban" (in the house), while -ba/be indicates direction, such as "házba" (in(to) the house). Speakers of some regional dialects or rural speakers often use the latter, shorter forms for both cases: "a házba vagyok" (incorrect: I'm in(to) the house). This mistake is often perceived as lower quality or uneducated speech. To avoid this perception, some people make the opposite mistake, using the first form everywhere, such as in the incorrect sentence "a házban megyek" (I go in the house). This effect can be observed most often in public speeches of politicians, religious figures, etc. A similar mistake affects old intransitive verbs, which in old Hungarian had a distinct system of conjugation (the so-called "ikes" conjugation, referring to the "-ik" suffix in third-person singular). Among others, this system requires the use of a suffix "-m" instead of "-k" in first person (e.g. "eszem" instead of "*eszek", for "I eat"). This conjugation is now only preserved in parts, most of which are rapidly fading out of use. However, due to prescriptivist pressure, some Hungarian speakers incorrectly use -m suffixes on all verbs ending in "-ik", not just old intransitive ones (e.g. "*kapaszkodom" instead of "kapaszkodok", for "I hold on"). The "-ik" suffix is also sometimes mistakenly applied to verbs that normally do not end in it, causing the verb ''robban'' "to explode" to turn into ''*robbanik''. ===Portuguese=== Standard Portuguese distinguishes the pronunciation of ''v'' from ''b'', but speakers hailing from northern Portugal will pronounce both as ''b''. So, when talking to a speaker from the south of the country (especially from Lisbon), the northerner will tend to hypercorrect himself by totally shifting his pronunciation from all ''b'' sounds to all ''v'' sounds.{{Citation needed |date=October 2011}} The following invented example illustrates the phenomenon. :Standard Portuguese: ''Em novembro, vou enviar esta embalagem para Lisboa.'' :: (Come November, I will send this package to Lisbon.) :Hypercorrect: ''Em '''novemvro''', vou enviar esta '''emvalagem''' para '''Lisvoa'''.'' == See also == *[[Disputed English grammar]] *[[Hyperforeignism]] *[[Hypocorrection]] *[[Shibboleth]] *[[List of English words with disputed usage]] *[[Regularization (linguistics)]]