Houma Tribe
Encyclopedia
The Houma people are a Native America tribe
. They belong to the United Houma Nation, a state recognized tribe in Louisiana
. They primarily live in East
and West Feliciana
, and Pointe Coupee Parishes
, about 100 miles (160 km) north of the town of Houma
named for them, west of the mouth of the Mississippi River
.
tribes, was recorded living along the Red River
on the east side of Mississippi River
, by the French explorer La Salle
in 1682. Because their war emblem is the saktce-ho’ma, or Red Crawfish
, anthropologist John R. Swanton
has speculated that the Houma are an offshoot of the Yazoo River
region’s Chakchiuma
tribe, whose name is a corruption of saktce-ho’ma.
Individuals in the tribe maintained contact with other Choctaw communities after settling in lower Lafourche-Terrebonne. It is not certain exactly how the Houma came to settle near the mouth of the Red River, formerly called the River of the Houma. The French explorers found them at the site of present-day Angola, Louisiana.
which began during the French colonial period in Louisiana, a majority of Houma people today speak Cajun French
. American English
is also widely spoken by the community. Additionally, it is estimated that in light of their distinct society and the isolated geography in which they reside, as many as 3,000 mostly elderly people living on Houma tribal lands in the Lafourche Basin are monolingual speakers of French.
In 1907, Swanton interviewed an elderly Houma woman to collect vocabulary from her Houma language. It was very similar to standard Choctaw
. This has led some linguists to conclude that the Houma spoke a Western Muskogean language (akin to Choctaw
or Chickasaw
) although it has also been suggested that the data in Swanton's vocabulary is Mobilian Jargon
. Some unidentified words may be from other languages spoken on the Mississippi. The Tunica
called Mobilian Jargon húma ʼúlu -- "Houma's language".
noted in his journal passing near the village of the “Oumas”. This brief mention marks the entry of the Houmas into recorded history. Later explorers, such as Henri de Tonti and Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville
, give a fuller description of the early Houma. Iberville reported the Houma village to be some six to eight miles inland from the east bank of the Mississippi near the mouth of the Red River.
When the Europeans arrived in greater number in the area, they thought each settlement represented a different tribe. While being guided through the area north of Lake Pontchartrain
, Iberville and his men asked their Bayougoula guides the identity of a group on the far bank of a particular bayou. The guides responded that these were the mugulashai, meaning “the people on the other side (of the bayou).” The French thought the term was the name of the group, and called them the Mugulasha tribe. They were more likely a band of the Bayougoula people who, like the Houma, were of Choctaw origin. In historic times, several bands of Choctaw migrated into the Louisiana area. Today they are known as the Jena, Clifton, and Lacombe bands.
By 1700, the Houma were in a border conflict with the Bayougoula over hunting grounds. Mediation by Iberville’s brother, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, settled the conflict in March of that year. The tribes placed a great red pole in the ground on the bank of a bayou, at a place now known as Scott’s Bluff, establishing a new border between their peoples. Called Istrouma by the natives and Baton Rouge by the French, this marker, some five miles above Bayou Manchac
on the east bank of the Mississippi, was the site of modern Baton Rouge, Louisiana
.
In 1706, the Houma left their villages in the Red River region for more southern areas. One account was that they wanted to move closer to their new French allies and away from the English-allied tribes to the north. From the 1730s to the French-Indian war (1754–1763) (also known as the Seven Years War), European wars were played out in North America. Numerous Native American bands formed protective alliances to deal with the conflicts. As early as 1739, the French reported that the Houma, Bayougoula, and Acolapissa were merging into one tribe. Though the tribe would remain predominantly Houma, the last remnants of many nations would find refuge with them.
Because of increasing conflicts between the English, French, and the Spanish, the Houma migrated south to their current location in Lafourche-Terrebonne. Oral history and modern scholars agree that the ancestors of the Lafourche-Terrebonne Houma tribe settled originally near the modern town of Houma, Louisiana
, at a place the natives called Chukunamous (meaning roughly Red House.)
, which would double the size of the new republic. On April 30, 1803, the two nations signed a treaty confirming the Louisiana Purchase
. With respect to native inhabitants, article six of the Louisiana Purchase
Treaty states
signed the treaty, they failed to uphold the policy. Dr. John Sibley was appointed by President
Thomas Jefferson
as Indian agent for the region. He did not visit any villages in the swamps of southern Louisiana and the Houma had no official representation to the federal government.
In 1885, the Houma lost a great leader, Rosalie Courteau. She had helped them survive through the aftermath of the American Civil War
. She continues to be highly respected.
While the modern world slowly began to edge its way into south Louisiana, the Houma remained relatively isolated in their bayou
settlements. The population of the Houma at this time was divided among six settlements. Travel between settlements was made by pirogue
s and the waterways; the state did not build roads connecting the settlements until the 1940s.
In 1907, John R. Swanton
, an anthropologist from the Smithsonian Institution
, visited the Houma.
The Houma of today continue to have a hunter-gatherer
type economy, cultivating small subsistence gardens and depending on the bayous and swamps for fish and game. It was not until 1964 after the Civil Rights Act
was passed that Houma children were allowed to attend public schools. Before this time Houma children only attended missionary
schools.
. The Houma tribe has been in the federal recognition process since 1979 when it first filed its letter of intent to petition with the Bureau of Indian Affairs
. The petition was rejected in 1994, and the tribe rebutted in 1996. The Houma tribe waits for their application to be reviewed again for final determination.
is the other main problem that the Houma tribe faces. This coastal erosion is mainly due to oil companies placing piping under the ground and not properly covering it afterward, as well as salt water intrusion caused by navigation canals dug by those same oil companies.
Currently the community of Isle de Jean Charles
is eroding away; scientists estimate that within the next 15 years, the island will disappear if nothing is done. The Houma tribe is looking for land to buy in the area to relocate and resettle the community together. Coastal erosion has also adversely affected the quality of fishing, and the tribe has suffered from a decrease in fish, as saltwater intrusion has taken over many of the old fishing holes.
The origin of the name is unclear but several theories are popular. One is that it is a French adaptation of a Houma word, reflecting the French colonial period. The surname Billiot is prevalent in eastern France, along the German border; it is related to the German name Billiad, meaning "sword carrier". The Houma encountered German speakers during their migration south, when they passed the communities that would eventually establish Hahnville and other ethnically German areas. However and despite hypothetical encounter with German speakers, the family name Billot or Billaut is well established name for Canadian settlers during the French-Colonial era; thus, it is possible that a Canadian might have come down the Mississippi to trade and decided to form a family with a Houma woman which would have led to the propagation of the name Billot as a family name.
In the location of lower Terrebonne and surrounding parishes, the mixed Indian–French names are Dardar, Naquin, Verrett, Verdin, Theriot, Gregoire, Solet, Soulet, Picou, Parfait, and Dion. Francis and Fitch are also common. These are common names of Houma families around the "bayou country". These have also been very difficult for Anglo-Americans to pronounce or read. English-only policies in the United States that used to forbid the teaching of either French or Houma have had an impact on the Houma in taking away many Houma Indians' abilities to read or write their family names correctly.
Today the right to learn, teach, speak, read and write in both French and Houma is guaranteed in the Louisiana constitution. In the 1980s the tribe led a language revival effort in which Houma children are instructed in their native language; many such students showed significant improvement in educational progress. Some of these Houma students have become distinguished as university graduates: linguists, scientists, musicians, Linux programmers, animators.
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
. They belong to the United Houma Nation, a state recognized tribe in Louisiana
Louisiana
Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States of America. Its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the only state in the U.S. with political subdivisions termed parishes, which are local governments equivalent to counties...
. They primarily live in East
East Feliciana Parish, Louisiana
East Feliciana Parish is a parish located in the U.S. state of Louisiana. The parish seat is Clinton. In 2000, the population was 21,360.East Feliciana Parish is part of the Baton Rouge Metropolitan Statistical Area as well as the Baton Rouge–Pierre Part Combined Statistical...
and West Feliciana
West Feliciana Parish, Louisiana
-Demographics:As of the census of 2000, there were 15,111 people, 3,645 households, and 2,704 families residing in the parish. The population density was 37 people per square mile . There were 4,485 housing units at an average density of 11 per square mile...
, and Pointe Coupee Parishes
Pointe Coupee Parish, Louisiana
Pointe Coupee Parish, pronounced "Pwent Koo-Pay" and , is a parish located in the U.S. state of Louisiana. The parish seat is New Roads. As of 2000, the population was 22,763....
, about 100 miles (160 km) north of the town of Houma
Houma, Louisiana
Houma is a city in and the parish seat of Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana, and the largest principal city of the Houma–Bayou Cane–Thibodaux Metropolitan Statistical Area. The city's powers of government have been absorbed by the parish, which is now run by the Terrebonne Parish...
named for them, west of the mouth of the Mississippi River
Mississippi River
The Mississippi River is the largest river system in North America. Flowing entirely in the United States, this river rises in western Minnesota and meanders slowly southwards for to the Mississippi River Delta at the Gulf of Mexico. With its many tributaries, the Mississippi's watershed drains...
.
Origins
The Houma tribe, thought to be Muskogean speaking like other ChoctawChoctaw
The Choctaw are a Native American people originally from the Southeastern United States...
tribes, was recorded living along the Red River
Red River (Mississippi watershed)
The Red River, or sometimes the Red River of the South, is a major tributary of the Mississippi and Atchafalaya Rivers in the southern United States of America. The river gains its name from the red-bed country of its watershed. It is one of several rivers with that name...
on the east side of Mississippi River
Mississippi River
The Mississippi River is the largest river system in North America. Flowing entirely in the United States, this river rises in western Minnesota and meanders slowly southwards for to the Mississippi River Delta at the Gulf of Mexico. With its many tributaries, the Mississippi's watershed drains...
, by the French explorer La Salle
Nicolas de la Salle
Nicolas de la Salle was the first commissary appointed by the French king in the colony of Louisiana. He was the adversary of Bienville and eventually responsible for his removal from the office of governor....
in 1682. Because their war emblem is the saktce-ho’ma, or Red Crawfish
Procambarus clarkii
Procambarus clarkii is a freshwater crayfish species, native to the Southeastern United States, but found also on other continents, where it is often an invasive pest. It is known variously as the red swamp crawfish, red swamp crayfish, Louisiana crawfish, Louisiana crayfish or mudbug.-Range and...
, anthropologist John R. Swanton
John R. Swanton
John Reed Swanton was an American anthropologist and linguist who worked with Native American peoples throughout the United States. Swanton achieved recognition in the fields of ethnology and ethnohistory...
has speculated that the Houma are an offshoot of the Yazoo River
Yazoo River
The Yazoo River is a river in the U.S. state of Mississippi.The Yazoo River was named by French explorer La Salle in 1682 as "Rivière des Yazous" in reference to the Yazoo tribe living near the river's mouth. The exact meaning of the term is unclear...
region’s Chakchiuma
Chakchiuma
The Chakchiuma were a Native American tribe of the upper Yazoo River region of what is today the state of Mississippi. They are at times confused with the Choctaw....
tribe, whose name is a corruption of saktce-ho’ma.
Individuals in the tribe maintained contact with other Choctaw communities after settling in lower Lafourche-Terrebonne. It is not certain exactly how the Houma came to settle near the mouth of the Red River, formerly called the River of the Houma. The French explorers found them at the site of present-day Angola, Louisiana.
Language
The indigenous Houma language is no longer used regularly and is thought to have fallen out of use by the late 19th century. As a result of a language shiftLanguage shift
Language shift, sometimes referred to as language transfer or language replacement or assimilation, is the progressive process whereby a speech community of a language shifts to speaking another language. The rate of assimilation is the percentage of individuals with a given mother tongue who speak...
which began during the French colonial period in Louisiana, a majority of Houma people today speak Cajun French
Cajun French
Cajun French is a variety or dialects of the French language spoken primarily in Louisiana, specifically in the southern and southwestern parishes....
. American English
American English
American English is a set of dialects of the English language used mostly in the United States. Approximately two-thirds of the world's native speakers of English live in the United States....
is also widely spoken by the community. Additionally, it is estimated that in light of their distinct society and the isolated geography in which they reside, as many as 3,000 mostly elderly people living on Houma tribal lands in the Lafourche Basin are monolingual speakers of French.
In 1907, Swanton interviewed an elderly Houma woman to collect vocabulary from her Houma language. It was very similar to standard Choctaw
Choctaw language
The Choctaw language, traditionally spoken by the Native American Choctaw people of the southeastern United States, is a member of the Muskogean family...
. This has led some linguists to conclude that the Houma spoke a Western Muskogean language (akin to Choctaw
Choctaw language
The Choctaw language, traditionally spoken by the Native American Choctaw people of the southeastern United States, is a member of the Muskogean family...
or Chickasaw
Chickasaw language
The Chickasaw language is a Native American language of the Muskogean family. It is agglutinative and follows the pattern of subject–object–verb. The language is closely related to, though perhaps not entirely mutually intelligible with, Choctaw...
) although it has also been suggested that the data in Swanton's vocabulary is Mobilian Jargon
Mobilian Jargon
Mobilian Jargon was a pidgin used as a lingua franca among Native American groups living along the Gulf of Mexico around the time of European settlement of the region...
. Some unidentified words may be from other languages spoken on the Mississippi. The Tunica
Tunica
Tunica may refer to:* The latin word for tunic, a type of clothing typical in the ancient world* In anatomy, tunica refers to a structure comprising a blood vessel; types include Tunica albuginea and Tunica vasculosa...
called Mobilian Jargon húma ʼúlu -- "Houma's language".
French era
In 1682 the French explorer BrinsonNicolas de la Salle
Nicolas de la Salle was the first commissary appointed by the French king in the colony of Louisiana. He was the adversary of Bienville and eventually responsible for his removal from the office of governor....
noted in his journal passing near the village of the “Oumas”. This brief mention marks the entry of the Houmas into recorded history. Later explorers, such as Henri de Tonti and Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville
Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville
Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville pronounced as described in note] Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville pronounced as described in note] Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville pronounced as described in note] (16 July 1661 – 9 July 1702 (probable)was a soldier, ship captain, explorer, colonial administrator, knight of...
, give a fuller description of the early Houma. Iberville reported the Houma village to be some six to eight miles inland from the east bank of the Mississippi near the mouth of the Red River.
When the Europeans arrived in greater number in the area, they thought each settlement represented a different tribe. While being guided through the area north of Lake Pontchartrain
Lake Pontchartrain
Lake Pontchartrain is a brackish estuary located in southeastern Louisiana. It is the second-largest inland saltwater body of water in the United States, after the Great Salt Lake in Utah, and the largest lake in Louisiana. As an estuary, Pontchartrain is not a true lake.It covers an area of with...
, Iberville and his men asked their Bayougoula guides the identity of a group on the far bank of a particular bayou. The guides responded that these were the mugulashai, meaning “the people on the other side (of the bayou).” The French thought the term was the name of the group, and called them the Mugulasha tribe. They were more likely a band of the Bayougoula people who, like the Houma, were of Choctaw origin. In historic times, several bands of Choctaw migrated into the Louisiana area. Today they are known as the Jena, Clifton, and Lacombe bands.
By 1700, the Houma were in a border conflict with the Bayougoula over hunting grounds. Mediation by Iberville’s brother, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, settled the conflict in March of that year. The tribes placed a great red pole in the ground on the bank of a bayou, at a place now known as Scott’s Bluff, establishing a new border between their peoples. Called Istrouma by the natives and Baton Rouge by the French, this marker, some five miles above Bayou Manchac
Bayou Manchac
Bayou Manchac is an bayou in southeast Louisiana. This bayou was once a very important waterway linking the Mississippi River to the Amite River.-Exploration:...
on the east bank of the Mississippi, was the site of modern Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Baton Rouge is the capital of the U.S. state of Louisiana. It is located in East Baton Rouge Parish and is the second-largest city in the state.Baton Rouge is a major industrial, petrochemical, medical, and research center of the American South...
.
In 1706, the Houma left their villages in the Red River region for more southern areas. One account was that they wanted to move closer to their new French allies and away from the English-allied tribes to the north. From the 1730s to the French-Indian war (1754–1763) (also known as the Seven Years War), European wars were played out in North America. Numerous Native American bands formed protective alliances to deal with the conflicts. As early as 1739, the French reported that the Houma, Bayougoula, and Acolapissa were merging into one tribe. Though the tribe would remain predominantly Houma, the last remnants of many nations would find refuge with them.
Because of increasing conflicts between the English, French, and the Spanish, the Houma migrated south to their current location in Lafourche-Terrebonne. Oral history and modern scholars agree that the ancestors of the Lafourche-Terrebonne Houma tribe settled originally near the modern town of Houma, Louisiana
Houma, Louisiana
Houma is a city in and the parish seat of Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana, and the largest principal city of the Houma–Bayou Cane–Thibodaux Metropolitan Statistical Area. The city's powers of government have been absorbed by the parish, which is now run by the Terrebonne Parish...
, at a place the natives called Chukunamous (meaning roughly Red House.)
Early United States era
Napoleon agreed to sell the Louisiana colony to the United StatesUnited States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, which would double the size of the new republic. On April 30, 1803, the two nations signed a treaty confirming the Louisiana Purchase
Louisiana Purchase
The Louisiana Purchase was the acquisition by the United States of America of of France's claim to the territory of Louisiana in 1803. The U.S...
. With respect to native inhabitants, article six of the Louisiana Purchase
Louisiana Purchase
The Louisiana Purchase was the acquisition by the United States of America of of France's claim to the territory of Louisiana in 1803. The U.S...
Treaty states
The United States promise to execute such treaties and articles as may have been agreed between Spain and the tribes and nations of Indians, until, by mutual consent of the United States and the said tribes of nations, other suitable articles shall have been agreed upon.Although the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
signed the treaty, they failed to uphold the policy. Dr. John Sibley was appointed by President
President
A president is a leader of an organization, company, trade union, university, or country.Etymologically, a president is one who presides, who sits in leadership...
Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson was the principal author of the United States Declaration of Independence and the Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom , the third President of the United States and founder of the University of Virginia...
as Indian agent for the region. He did not visit any villages in the swamps of southern Louisiana and the Houma had no official representation to the federal government.
In 1885, the Houma lost a great leader, Rosalie Courteau. She had helped them survive through the aftermath of the American Civil War
American Civil War
The American Civil War was a civil war fought in the United States of America. In response to the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, 11 southern slave states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America ; the other 25...
. She continues to be highly respected.
Modern era
By the end of the 19th century, the Houma language had merged with the French language of the former colony. The Houma-French language which the Houma people speak today is a mix between the French spoken by early explorers and Houma words, such as shaui (“raccoon”). Yet, Houma-French language is still French language, because anybody who speaks French from Canada, France, Rwanda or Louisiana can understand each other. There are some differences in vocabulary, for example, chevrette to say crevette (shrimp). The accent of the Houma Nation French-speaker is not more different than the difference between an American English-speaker and an English-speaker from England; every linguistic group develops many different accents; the Houma Nation is no different.While the modern world slowly began to edge its way into south Louisiana, the Houma remained relatively isolated in their bayou
Bayou
A bayou is an American term for a body of water typically found in flat, low-lying areas, and can refer either to an extremely slow-moving stream or river , or to a marshy lake or wetland. The name "bayou" can also refer to creeks that see level changes due to tides and hold brackish water which...
settlements. The population of the Houma at this time was divided among six settlements. Travel between settlements was made by pirogue
Pirogue
A pirogue is a small, flat-bottomed boat of a design associated particularly with the Cajuns of the Louisiana marsh. In West Africa they were used as traditional fishing boats. These boats are not usually intended for overnight travel but are light and small enough to be easily taken onto land...
s and the waterways; the state did not build roads connecting the settlements until the 1940s.
In 1907, John R. Swanton
John R. Swanton
John Reed Swanton was an American anthropologist and linguist who worked with Native American peoples throughout the United States. Swanton achieved recognition in the fields of ethnology and ethnohistory...
, an anthropologist from the Smithsonian Institution
Smithsonian Institution
The Smithsonian Institution is an educational and research institute and associated museum complex, administered and funded by the government of the United States and by funds from its endowment, contributions, and profits from its retail operations, concessions, licensing activities, and magazines...
, visited the Houma.
The Houma of today continue to have a hunter-gatherer
Hunter-gatherer
A hunter-gatherer or forage society is one in which most or all food is obtained from wild plants and animals, in contrast to agricultural societies which rely mainly on domesticated species. Hunting and gathering was the ancestral subsistence mode of Homo, and all modern humans were...
type economy, cultivating small subsistence gardens and depending on the bayous and swamps for fish and game. It was not until 1964 after the Civil Rights Act
Civil Rights Act of 1964
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a landmark piece of legislation in the United States that outlawed major forms of discrimination against African Americans and women, including racial segregation...
was passed that Houma children were allowed to attend public schools. Before this time Houma children only attended missionary
Missionary
A missionary is a member of a religious group sent into an area to do evangelism or ministries of service, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care and economic development. The word "mission" originates from 1598 when the Jesuits sent members abroad, derived from the Latin...
schools.
Federal recognition
One of the most important issues of the Houma people is the still unresolved matter of their federal recognitionNative American recognition in the United States
Native American recognition in the United States most often refers to the process of a tribe being recognized by the United States federal government, or to a person being granted membership to a federally recognized tribe. There are 565 federally recognized tribal governments in the United States...
. The Houma tribe has been in the federal recognition process since 1979 when it first filed its letter of intent to petition with the Bureau of Indian Affairs
Bureau of Indian Affairs
The Bureau of Indian Affairs is an agency of the federal government of the United States within the US Department of the Interior. It is responsible for the administration and management of of land held in trust by the United States for Native Americans in the United States, Native American...
. The petition was rejected in 1994, and the tribe rebutted in 1996. The Houma tribe waits for their application to be reviewed again for final determination.
Coastal erosion
As many of tribal communities are in coastal areas and depend on the swamps and bayous as a source of food and economic resource, the ongoing coastal erosionCoastal erosion
Coastal erosion is the wearing away of land and the removal of beach or dune sediments by wave action, tidal currents, wave currents, or drainage...
is the other main problem that the Houma tribe faces. This coastal erosion is mainly due to oil companies placing piping under the ground and not properly covering it afterward, as well as salt water intrusion caused by navigation canals dug by those same oil companies.
Currently the community of Isle de Jean Charles
Isle de Jean Charles
Isle de Jean Charles is a narrow ridge of land between Bayou Terrebonne and Bayou Pointe-aux-Chene in Terreboone Parish, Louisiana. It is home to many members of the Biloxi-Chitimacha tribe as well as a community of the Houma people...
is eroding away; scientists estimate that within the next 15 years, the island will disappear if nothing is done. The Houma tribe is looking for land to buy in the area to relocate and resettle the community together. Coastal erosion has also adversely affected the quality of fishing, and the tribe has suffered from a decrease in fish, as saltwater intrusion has taken over many of the old fishing holes.
Future perspectives
The Houma people face many challenges: coastal erosion, the threat of hurricanes and the continuing struggle for federal recognition among them. They stand determined, as a people, to meet those challenges with the same strength and determination that brought them through the last 300 years of colonization.Family names
Many Houma Indians have the family name Billiot. This is usually pronounced by family members as "Be-Yo" [bi-jo]. It is sometimes alternately spelled as Beo to reflect this. English speakers have historically had a difficult time pronouncing the name Billiot correctly even according to English rules of pronunciation. The most common English pronunciation is [bi-li-at] but [bil-yat] is popular with younger populations.The origin of the name is unclear but several theories are popular. One is that it is a French adaptation of a Houma word, reflecting the French colonial period. The surname Billiot is prevalent in eastern France, along the German border; it is related to the German name Billiad, meaning "sword carrier". The Houma encountered German speakers during their migration south, when they passed the communities that would eventually establish Hahnville and other ethnically German areas. However and despite hypothetical encounter with German speakers, the family name Billot or Billaut is well established name for Canadian settlers during the French-Colonial era; thus, it is possible that a Canadian might have come down the Mississippi to trade and decided to form a family with a Houma woman which would have led to the propagation of the name Billot as a family name.
In the location of lower Terrebonne and surrounding parishes, the mixed Indian–French names are Dardar, Naquin, Verrett, Verdin, Theriot, Gregoire, Solet, Soulet, Picou, Parfait, and Dion. Francis and Fitch are also common. These are common names of Houma families around the "bayou country". These have also been very difficult for Anglo-Americans to pronounce or read. English-only policies in the United States that used to forbid the teaching of either French or Houma have had an impact on the Houma in taking away many Houma Indians' abilities to read or write their family names correctly.
Today the right to learn, teach, speak, read and write in both French and Houma is guaranteed in the Louisiana constitution. In the 1980s the tribe led a language revival effort in which Houma children are instructed in their native language; many such students showed significant improvement in educational progress. Some of these Houma students have become distinguished as university graduates: linguists, scientists, musicians, Linux programmers, animators.
Further reading
- Brown, Cecil H.; & Hardy, Heather K. (2000). What is Houma?. International Journal of American Linguistics, 66 (4), 521-548.
- Dardar, T. Mayheart (2000). Women-Chiefs and Crawfish Warriors: A Brief History of the Houma People, Translated by Clint Bruce. New Orleans: United Houma Nation and Centenary College of Louisiana.
- Goddard, Ives. (2005). "The indigenous languages of the Southeast", Anthropological Linguistics, 47 (1), 1-60.
- Miller, Mark Edwin. "A Matter of Visibility: The United Houma Nation's Struggle for Federal Acknowledgment," in Forgotten Tribes: Unrecognized Indians and the Federal Acknowledgment Process. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004.
Media
- Hidden Nation, a one-hour documentary video by Barbara Sillery & Oak Lea, Keepsake Productions (New Orleans), 1994.
External links
- United Houma Nation, official website
- Lee Sultzman, "Houma History"
- Greg English, "History of the United Houma Nation", Louisiana 101