Host desecrationDesecration is the act of depriving something of its sacred character—or the disrespectful or contemptuous treatment of that which is held to be sacred by a group or individual.-Detail:...
, also called host-nailing, is a form of
sacrilegeSacrilege is the violation or injurious treatment of a sacred object. In a less proper sense, any transgression against the virtue of religion would be a sacrilege. It can come in the form of irreverence to sacred persons, places, and things...
in Christianity (Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy,
AnglicanismAnglicanism is a tradition within Christianity comprising churches with historical connections to the Church of England or similar beliefs, worship and church structures...
and
Oriental OrthodoxyOriental Orthodoxy is the communion of Eastern Christian Churches that recognize only three ecumenical councils — the First Council of Nicaea, the First Council of Constantinople and the Council of Ephesus. They rejected the dogmatic definitions of the Council of Chalcedon...
) involving the mistreatment or malicious use of a consecrated Host— the sacred Bread used in the
MassIn physics, mass commonly refers to any of three properties of matter, which have been shown experimentally to be equivalent: inertial mass, active gravitational mass and passive gravitational mass...
. Throughout history, a number of groups have been accused of desecrating the Eucharist; because of the spiritual importance of the consecrated Wafer, the accusation is one of
metaphysicalMetaphysics investigates principles of reality transcending those of any particular science. Cosmology and ontology are traditional branches of metaphysics. It is concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of being and the world...
evilEvil, in many cultures, is a broad term used to describe what are seen as subjectively harmful deeds that are labeled as such to steer moral support. Evil is usually contrasted with good, which describes acts that are subjectively beneficial to the observer. In some religions, evil is an active...
and hostility towards
GodGod is a deity in theistic and deistic religions and other belief systems, representing either the sole deity in monotheism, or a principal deity in polytheism....
.
Overview
Accusations against Jews were a common pretext for massacres and expulsions throughout the
Middle AgesThe Middle Ages of European history is a period of European history covering roughly a millennium in the 5th century through 16th centuries. More specific starting and ending points are sometimes adopted by scholars to suit their respective specializations or current focus...
in
EuropeEurope is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus Mountains , and the Black Sea to the southeast...
. Similar accusations were made in witchcraft trials; witch-hunter's guides such as the
Malleus MaleficarumThe Malleus Maleficarum is a famous treatise on witches, written in 1486 by Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger, two Inquisitors of the Catholic Church, and was first published in Germany in 1487...
refer to Hosts as being objects of desecration by witches. It is part of many descriptions of the
Black MassBlack Mass is the name given to a ceremony supposedly celebrated during the medieval Witches or Black Sabbath, which was a parody of the Catholic Mass...
, both in ostensibly historical works and in fiction.
Background
The
Catholic ChurchThe Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church. With more than a billion members, over half of all Christians and more than one-sixth of the world's population, the Catholic Church is a communion of the Western, or Latin Rite Church, and...
, along with the Orthodox churches and Anglican churches believe that during the celebration of the
EucharistThe Eucharist, also called Holy Communion, Sacrament of the Table, the Blessed Sacrament, or The Lord's Supper and other names, is a Christian sacrament or ordinance, generally considered to be a commemoration of the Last Supper, the final meal that Jesus Christ shared with his disciples before his...
, the offerings of bread and wine are changed into the Body and Blood of
JesusJesus of Nazareth —also known as Jesus Christ or occasionally Jesus the Christ—is the central figure of Christianity. Within most Christian denominations...
, in an extraordinary, metaphysical way, while still maintaining all the physical properties of bread and wine. In the
Middle AgesThe Middle Ages of European history is a period of European history covering roughly a millennium in the 5th century through 16th centuries. More specific starting and ending points are sometimes adopted by scholars to suit their respective specializations or current focus...
, Catholic theology offered the concept of
transubstantiationIn Roman Catholic theology, "transubstantiation" means the change of the substance of bread and wine into the Body and Blood of Christ in the Eucharist, while all that is accessible to the senses remains as before.Some Greek confessions use the term "transubstantiation" , but most Orthodox...
to explain this change, believed to be actual and not merely symbolic by the early Catholic Christians of the first century. The concept,
defined as a dogmaIn Catholicism, a dogmatic definition is an extraordinary infallible statement published by a pope or an ecumenical council concerning a matter of faith or morals, the belief in which the Catholic Church requires of all Christians .It most often refers to the infallible...
at the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215, holds that the substances of the offerings are transformed, while the appearance of bread and wine remain.
As Christians believe Jesus to be "true God and true man", his Body and Blood in the form of the consecrated host are
adoredAdoration is to give homage or worship to someone or something.- Ancient Rome :Ad, to, and ora, mouth; , primarily an act of homage or worship, which, among the Romans, was performed by raising the hand to the mouth, kissing it and then waving it in the direction of the adored object...
in the Catholic Church. Theft, sale, or use of the host for a profane purpose is considered a grave sin and sacrilege, which incurs the penalty of
excommunicationExcommunication is a religious censure used to deprive or suspend membership in a religious community. The word literally means putting [someone] out of communion. In some religions, excommunication includes spiritual condemnation of the member or group...
, which is imposed
automaticallyLatae sententiae is a Latin term used in the canon law of the Catholic Church meaning literally "given sentence".Officially, a latae sententiae penalty follows automatically, by force of the law itself, when the law is contravened....
in the
Latin RiteThe Latin Church or Rite is the majority Rite or particular church within the Catholic Church, comprising roughly 80% of its membership. The Latin Rite is one of the 23 sui iuris particular Churches within the Catholic Church...
(See Code of Canon Law, Latin Rite Code canon 1367, or Eastern Rite Code canon 1442.) It was widely believed that under certain circumstances, such as disbelief or desecration, the host could display supernatural properties.
Some
ProtestantProtestantism is a branch within Christianity, containing many denominations with some differing practices and doctrines, that principally originated in the sixteenth-century Protestant Reformation. It is considered to be one of the major divisions within Christianity, together with the Roman...
denominations, especially Lutherans, have similar beliefs regarding the Eucharist and the
Real PresenceReal Presence is a term used in various Christian traditions to express belief that in the Eucharist, Jesus Christ is really present in what was previously just bread and wine, and not merely present in symbol, a figure of speech , or by his power .Not all Christian traditions accept this dogma...
, though they differ about the rite and the concept of transubstantiation with Catholics and Orthodox Christians.
Host desecration has been associated with groups identified as inimical to Christianity. It is a common belief that desecration of the host is part of
Satanic practiceSatanism comprises a number of related beliefs and social phenomena. They share the feature of symbolism, veneration or admiration of Satan . Satan first appeared in the Hebrew Bible and was an Angel who challenged the religious faith of humans. In the Book of Job he is called "the Satan" and...
, especially the
Black MassBlack Mass is the name given to a ceremony supposedly celebrated during the medieval Witches or Black Sabbath, which was a parody of the Catholic Mass...
. The modern
Church of SatanThe Church of Satan is an organization dedicated to the acceptance of the carnal self, as articulated in The Satanic Bible, written in 1968 by Anton Szandor LaVey.- History :...
regards Christian doctrine as false, and does not desecrate the host in most rituals. LaVeyan Satanists do not typically perform Black Mass as a regular ritual, though "Le Messe Noir" from
Anton LaVeyAnton Szandor LaVey, born Howard Stanton Levey, was the American founder and High Priest of the Church of Satan as well as a writer, occultist, and musician...
's work
The Satanic RitualsThe Satanic Rituals is a book by Anton Szandor LaVey published in 1972 as a companion volume to The Satanic Bible. It is a collection of nine rituals with an introductory essay to each....
does include some elements.
Since the publication of a document called Memoriale Domine in 1969, the Apolistic See of the Catholic Church has allowed certain countries to allow communicants to receive the Host in the hand, rather than directly onto the tongue, reviving an "ancient custom". Communion in the hand is now widespread in many parts of the world. The practice means that access to consecrated Hosts is easier than in the past, since the person receiving it in the hand may pretend to place it in their mouth for consumption. However, recent statements and practices of
Pope Benedict XVIPope Benedict XVI is the 265th and reigning Pope, by virtue of his office of Bishop of Rome, the head of the Catholic Church and, as such, Sovereign of the Vatican City State...
have caused a recent shift in Catholic practice of receiving on the tongue while kneeling, which is also an ancient practice.
Medieval accusations against Jews
Accusations of host desecration leveled against Jews were a common pretext for massacres and expulsions throughout the
Middle AgesThe Middle Ages of European history is a period of European history covering roughly a millennium in the 5th century through 16th centuries. More specific starting and ending points are sometimes adopted by scholars to suit their respective specializations or current focus...
in
EuropeEurope is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus Mountains , and the Black Sea to the southeast...
. At the time, the concept of
Jewish deicideJewish deicide is a belief that places the responsibility for the death of Jesus on the Jewish people as a whole.This deicide accusation is expressed in the ethnoreligious slur "Christ killer".-Responsibility of Jewish authorities:...
— that the Jewish people were responsible for the death of Jesus — was a generally accepted Christian belief. It was claimed that Jews stole consecrated hosts and desecrated them to re-enact the
crucifixion of JesusThe crucifixion of Jesus is an event that occurred during the first century A.D. in which Jesus was arrested, tried by the Jewish Sanhedrin, and sentenced by Pontius Pilate to be scourged and finally executed on a cross...
by stabbing or burning the host or otherwise misusing it. These accusations may have been based on the paradoxical belief that Jews considered the host the literal body of Jesus; by crucifying it they imagined they were crucifying Jesus anew. They were believed to use blood that flowed from the host to get rid of the "fœtor Judaicus" ("Jewish stink"), or to color their cheeks to give them a fresh and rosy appearance.
In some variants of this libel, the stabbed host would shed drops of blood. This idea may be based on the natural phenomenon because scarlet colonies of a
Serratia marcescensSerratia marcescens is a species of Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium in the family Enterobacteriaceae. A human pathogen, S. marcescens is involved in nosocomial infections, particularly catheter-associated bacteremia, urinary tract infections and wound infections, and is responsible for...
(also called for this reason
Micrococcus prodigiosus) may sometimes form on stale food kept in a dry place, bearing similarity to drops of blood. Later variants appear to further vilify Jews, depicting them as burying the host in an attempt to hide it, rather than converting. Where the host was buried, a new spring burst forth from the ground. In one instance, Jews were said to be burying pieces of a pierced host in a meadow; it then transformed into butterflies that healed cripples and blind persons. In another example, angels and doves flew out of a stove in which Jews were burning the desecrated host. Again, the pieces fluttered out of a swamp, and a herd of grazing oxen, on seeing them, bowed down before them. The blood from the host was said to have splashed the foreheads of the Jews, leaving an indelible mark that betrayed them.
Variations in the claims aside, Jews in the Middle Ages were frequently victims of similar accusations, considered more serious desecration of other revered items, such as relics or images of Jesus and the saints. The accusations were often supported only by the testimony of the accuser, who may potentially bear a prejudice against the accused Jew or the Jewish people. Despite this, some alleged perpetrators were tried and found guilty, on little evidence or through torture.
The penalties for Jews accused of defiling hosts were severe. False confessions were coerced by torture, and accused Jews were condemned and burned, sometimes with all the other Jews in the community, as happened in
BerlitzBerlitz can refer to:* The Berlitz Language Schools* Maximilian Berlitz, founder of the Berlitz Language Schools* Charles Berlitz, grandson of Maximilian Berlitz and author of several Bermuda Triangle related books...
in 1243. in
PraguePrague is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic. Nicknames for Prague have included "the mother of cities" , "city of a hundred spires", or Stověžatá Praha in Czech and "the golden city" or Zlaté město in Czech.Situated on the River Vltava in central Bohemia, Prague has been the...
in 1389, and in many German cities, according to Ocker's writings in the
Harvard Theological Review. According to William Nichol in
Christian Antisemitism, "over 100 instances of the charge have been recorded, in many cases leading to massacres."
The first recorded accusation was made in 1243 at Berlitz, near Berlin. As a consequence all the Jews of Berlitz were burned on the spot, which was subsequently called
Judenberg. Another famous case that took place in 1290, in
ParisParis is the capital of France and the country's most populous city. It is situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region...
, was commemorated in the Church of the Rue des Billettes and in a local confraternity. In 1370 in
BrusselsBrussels , officially the Brussels Region or Brussels-Capital Region , is the de facto capital city of the European Union and the largest urban area in Belgium...
, the charge of host desecration, long celebrated in a special fest and depicted in artistic relics in the Church of St. Gudule, led to the extermination of the Jews of the city. The case of 1337, at
DeggendorfDeggendorf is a town in Bavaria, capital of the district Deggendorf.The earliest traces of settlement in the area are found near the Danube, about 8,000 years ago. Both Bronze Age and Celtic era archeological finds indicate continuous habitation through the years...
, still celebrated locally as "Deggendorf Gnad", led to a series of massacres across the region. In 1510, at
KnoblauchKnoblauch also Knobloch, Knoblock, and Knoblaugh , is a German surname meaning garlic. Itmay refer to:-Noble Families:*Knoblauch See the German language entry *Knoblauch zu Hatzbach See the German language entry...
, near
BerlinBerlin is the capital city and one of sixteen states of Germany. With a population of 3.4 million within its city limits, Berlin is Germany's largest city. It is the second most populous city and the eighth most populous urban area in the European Union...
, 38 Jews were executed and more expelled from
BrandenburgBrandenburg is one of the sixteen states of Germany. It lies in the east of the country and is one of the new federal states that were re-created in 1990 upon the reunification of the former West Germany and East Germany. The capital is Potsdam...
.
The alleged host desecration in 1410, at
SegoviaSegovia is a city in Spain, the capital of the province of Segovia in Castile and Leon. It is situated north of Madrid, and can be reached by bullet train in 35 minutes from Madrid at . 55,586 people live in the municipality of Segovia.-Name:...
, was said to have brought about an earthquake, and as a result, the local synagogue was confiscated and leading Jews were executed; the event continues to be celebrated as a local feast of
Corpus ChristiCorpus Christi is a Western Catholic feast. It is also celebrated in some churches of the Anglican Communion. It honours the Eucharist, which believers consider to be the actual body and blood of Christ, and as such it does not commemorate a particular event in Jesus' life...
. Similar accusations, resulting in extensive persecution of Jews, were brought forward in 1294, at
LaaLaa is the name of the following places:* Laa an der Thaya, Lower Austria* Laa , StyriaLa'a may refer to:* Laamaikahiki, King of KauaiLAA may refer to:* L'Artibonite in Action, a political party of Haithi...
,
AustriaAustria , officially the Republic of Austria , is a landlocked country of roughly 8.3 million people in Central Europe. It borders both Germany and the Czech Republic to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west...
; 1298, at
RöttingenRöttingen is a town in the district of Würzburg, in Bavaria, Germany. It is situated 30 km south of Würzburg, and 15 km east of Bad Mergentheim.- Climate :...
, near
WürzburgWürzburg is a city in the region of Franconia which lies in the northern tip of Bavaria, Germany. Located on the Main River, it is the capital of the Regierungsbezirk Lower Franconia. The regional dialect is Franconian....
, and at Korneuburg, near
ViennaVienna is the capital of the Republic of Austria and also one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's primary city, with a population of about 1.7 million , and is by far the largest city in Austria, as well as its cultural, economic, and political centre. It is the 10th largest city by...
; 1299, at Ratisbon; 1306, at St. Pölten; 1325, at
KrakówKraków , in English also spelled Krakow or Cracow and pronounced
, is one of the largest and oldest cities in Poland and a popular tourist destination. Its historic centre was inscribed on the list of World Heritage Sites as the first of its kind...
; 1330, at
GüstrowGüstrow is a town in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Germany. It is the capital of the district of Güstrow. Population: 34,000 .- History :...
; 1338, at
PulkauPulkau is a city in the district of Hollabrunn in Lower Austria, Austria.-External links:* * * * * *...
; 1388, at
PraguePrague is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic. Nicknames for Prague have included "the mother of cities" , "city of a hundred spires", or Stověžatá Praha in Czech and "the golden city" or Zlaté město in Czech.Situated on the River Vltava in central Bohemia, Prague has been the...
; 1399, at
PosenPoznań is a city in west-central Poland with over 557,264 inhabitants . Located on the Warta River, it is one of the oldest cities in Poland, making it an important historical centre and a vibrant centre of trade, industry, and education. Poznań is Poland's fifth largest city and fourth biggest...
; 1401, at Glogau; 1420, at Ems; 1453, at Breslau; 1478, at
PassauPassau is a town in Lower Bavaria, Germany, known also as the Dreiflüssestadt , because the Danube is joined there by the Inn from the South, and the Ilz coming out of the Bavarian Forest to the North....
; 1492, at Sternberg, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin; 1514, at Mittelberg, in
AlsaceAlsace is the fourth-smallest of the 26 regions of France in land area , and the smallest in metropolitan France. It is also the sixth-most densely populated region in France , with 222 inhabitants per km²...
; 1558, at Sochaczew, in Poland. The last Jew burned for stealing a host died in 1631, according to Jacques Basnage, quoting from Manasseh b. Israel.
The accusation of host desecration gradually ceased after the
ReformationThe Protestant Reformation was a Christian reform movement in Europe which is generally deemed to have begun with Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses in 1517 although a number of precursors such as Jan Hus predate that event...
when first
Martin LutherMartin Luther changed the course of Western civilization by initiating the Protestant Reformation. As a priest and theology professor, he confronted indulgence salesmen with his The Ninety-Five Theses in 1517. Luther strongly disputed their claim that freedom from God's punishment of sin could...
in 1523 and then Sigismund August of Poland in 1558 were among those who repudiated the accusation. However, sporadic instances of host desecration libel occurred even in the 18th and 19th century. In 1761 in
NancyNancy is a city in the Meurthe-et-Moselle department in north-eastern France, and formerly the capital of the Duchy of Lorraine, and then the French province of the same name.The city is the head of the department...
, several Jews from
AlsaceAlsace is the fourth-smallest of the 26 regions of France in land area , and the smallest in metropolitan France. It is also the sixth-most densely populated region in France , with 222 inhabitants per km²...
were executed on a charge of host desecration. The last recorded accusation was brought up in Bislad,
RomaniaRomania is a country located in Southeastern and Central Europe, North of the Balkan Peninsula, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea. Almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory...
, in 1836.
2008 controversy
In his July 8 blog entry, biology professor
PZ MyersPaul Zachary "PZ" Myers is an American biology professor at the University of Minnesota Morris and the author of the science blog Pharyngula. He is currently an associate professor of biology at UMM, works with zebrafish in the field of evolutionary developmental biology , and also cultivates an...
criticized the reaction to a local student's act of desecration. Myers described the level of harassment leveled against the student and expressed his intent to desecrate the wafer, which Catholics consider a
mortal sinMortal sin, according to the beliefs of the Catholic Church is a sin that, unless confessed and absolved , condemns a person's soul to Hell after death...
.
Myers expressed outrage that Fox News appeared to be inciting readers to cause further problems for the student, and ridiculed reports that armed guards would attend the next mass. Myers suggested that if any of his readers could acquire some consecrated Eucharistic hosts for him, he would treat the wafers "with profound disrespect and heinous cracker abuse, all photographed and presented here on the web."
A number of Roman Catholics immediately reacted strongly. Donohue's Catholic League accused Myers of anti-catholic
bigotryA bigot is a person obstinately or intolerantly devoted to his or her own opinions and prejudices.The correct use of the term requires the elements of obstinacy, irrationality, and animosity toward those of differing devotion....
, described his proposal as a threat to desecrate what
Catholics hold to be the Body of ChristIn Roman Catholic theology, "transubstantiation" means the change of the substance of bread and wine into the Body and Blood of Christ in the Eucharist, while all that is accessible to the senses remains as before.Some Greek confessions use the term "transubstantiation" , but most Orthodox...
, and sent a letter asking the University of Minnesota and the Minnesota State Legislature to take action against Myers..
According to Donohue, as the Pharyngula website was accessible via a link from the University of Minnesota website, it should be bound by the institution's code of conduct which requires faculty to be "respectful, fair and civil" when dealing with others. Subsequently, Myers explained to the
Star TribuneThe Star Tribune is the largest newspaper in the U.S. state of Minnesota and is published seven days each week in an edition for the Minneapolis-Saint Paul metropolitan area. A statewide version is also available across Minnesota and parts of Wisconsin, Iowa, South Dakota, and North Dakota...
that while his post was "satire and protest," he had received death threats regarding the incident but was not taking them too seriously.
External links