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Hormones (from Greek
Greek language

Greek is an Indo-European languages native to the southern Balkan peninsula, the language of the Greek people. It forms an independent branch within Indo-European....
 ??µ? - "impetus") are chemicals released by cell
Cell

Cell may refer to:...
s that affect cells in other parts of the body. Only a small amount of hormone is required to alter cell metabolism
Metabolism

Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that occur in living organisms in order to maintain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments....
. It is essentially a chemical messenger that transports a signal from one cell to another. All multicellular organism
Multicellular organism

Multicellular organisms are organisms consisting of more than one cell , and having differentiated cells that perform specialized functions in the cell....
s produce hormones; plant
Plant

Plants are Life organisms belonging to the Kingdom Plantae. They include familiar organisms such as trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae....
 hormones are also called phytohormones. Hormones in animal
Animal

Animals are a major group of multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the Kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their life....
s are often transported in the blood. Cells respond to a hormone when they express
Gene expression

Gene expression is the process by which inheritable information from a gene, such as the DNA sequence, is made into a functional gene product, such as protein or RNA....
 a specific receptor
Receptor (biochemistry)

In biochemistry, a receptor is a protein molecule, embedded in either the plasma membrane or cytoplasm of a cell, to which a mobile signaling molecule may attach....
 for that hormone.






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Hormones (from Greek
Greek language

Greek is an Indo-European languages native to the southern Balkan peninsula, the language of the Greek people. It forms an independent branch within Indo-European....
 ??µ? - "impetus") are chemicals released by cell
Cell

Cell may refer to:...
s that affect cells in other parts of the body. Only a small amount of hormone is required to alter cell metabolism
Metabolism

Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that occur in living organisms in order to maintain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments....
. It is essentially a chemical messenger that transports a signal from one cell to another. All multicellular organism
Multicellular organism

Multicellular organisms are organisms consisting of more than one cell , and having differentiated cells that perform specialized functions in the cell....
s produce hormones; plant
Plant

Plants are Life organisms belonging to the Kingdom Plantae. They include familiar organisms such as trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae....
 hormones are also called phytohormones. Hormones in animal
Animal

Animals are a major group of multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the Kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their life....
s are often transported in the blood. Cells respond to a hormone when they express
Gene expression

Gene expression is the process by which inheritable information from a gene, such as the DNA sequence, is made into a functional gene product, such as protein or RNA....
 a specific receptor
Receptor (biochemistry)

In biochemistry, a receptor is a protein molecule, embedded in either the plasma membrane or cytoplasm of a cell, to which a mobile signaling molecule may attach....
 for that hormone. The hormone binds to the receptor protein
Protein

Proteins are organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of adjacent amino acid Residue ....
, resulting in the activation of a signal transduction
Signal transduction

In biology, 'signal transduction' refers to any process by which a cell converts one kind of signal or stimulus into another. Most processes of signal transduction involve ordered sequences of biochemistry chemical reaction inside the cell, which are carried out by enzymes, activated by Second messenger systems, resulting in a signal tran...
 mechanism that ultimately leads to cell type-specific responses.

Endocrine
Endocrine system

The endocrine system is a system of small organs that involve the release of extracellular signaling molecules known as hormones. The endocrine system is instrumental in regulating metabolism, human development , and tissue and also plays a part in determining Mood ....
 hormone molecule
Molecule

In chemistry, a molecule is defined as a sufficiently stable, electric charge neutral group of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held together by very strong chemical bonds....
s are secreted (released) directly into the bloodstream, while exocrine hormones
Exocrine gland

Exocrine glands are glands that secrete their products into duct s . They are the counterparts to endocrine glands, which secrete their products directly into the bloodstream or release hormones that affect only target cells nearby the release site....
 (or ectohormones) are secreted directly into a duct, and from the duct they either flow into the bloodstream or they flow from cell to cell by diffusion
Diffusion

Molecular diffusion, often called simply diffusion, is a net transport of molecules from a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration by random molecular motion....
 in a process known as paracrine signalling
Paracrine signalling

Paracrine signaling is a form of cell signaling in which the target cell is near the signal-releasing cell.A distinction is sometimes made between paracrine and autocrine signaling....
.

Hierarchical nature of hormonal control

Hormonal regulation of some physiological activities involves a hierarchy of cell types acting on each other either to stimulate or to modulate the release and action of a particular hormone. The secretion of hormones from successive levels of endocrine cell
Endocrine system

The endocrine system is a system of small organs that involve the release of extracellular signaling molecules known as hormones. The endocrine system is instrumental in regulating metabolism, human development , and tissue and also plays a part in determining Mood ....
s is stimulated by chemical signals originating from cells higher up the hierarchical system. The master coordinator of hormonal activity in mammal
Mammal

Mammals are a class of vertebrate animals whose name is derived from their distinctive feature, mammary glands, with which they feed their young....
s is the hypothalamus
Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland ....
, which acts on input that it receives from the central nervous system
Central nervous system

The central nervous system is the part of the nervous system that functions to coordinate the activity of all parts of the bodies of multicellular organisms....
.

Other hormone secretion occurs in response to local conditions, such as the rate of secretion of parathyroid hormone
Parathyroid hormone

Parathyroid hormone , or parathormone, is secreted by the parathyroid glands as a polypeptide containing 84 amino acids. It acts to increase the concentration of calcium in the blood, whereas calcitonin acts to decrease calcium concentration....
 by the parathyroid cells in response to fluctuations of ionized calcium
Calcium

Calcium is the chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. It has an atomic mass of 40.078 amu. Calcium is a soft grey alkaline earth metal, and is the fifth most abundant element by mass in the earth's Crust ....
 levels in extracellular fluid
Extracellular fluid

Extracellular fluid usually denotes all body fluid outside of cells. The remainder is called intracellular fluid.In some animals, including mammals, the extracellular fluid can be divided into two major subcompartments, interstitial fluid and blood plasma....
.

Hormone signaling

Hormonal signaling across this hierarchy involves the following:
  1. Biosynthesis
    Protein biosynthesis

    Protein synthesis is the process in which cell build proteins. The term is sometimes used to refer only to protein translation but more often it refers to a multi-step process, beginning with amino acid synthesis and transcription which are then used for translation ....
     of a particular hormone in a particular tissue
  2. Storage and secretion of the hormone
  3. Transport of the hormone to the target cell(s)
  4. Recognition of the hormone by an associated cell membrane
    Membrane protein

    A membrane protein is a protein molecule that is attached to, or associated with the membrane of a cell or an organelle. More than half of all proteins interact with membranes....
     or intracellular
    Intracellular

    Not to be confused with intercellular, meaning "between cells".In cell biology, molecular biology and related fields, the word intracellular means "inside the cell "....
     receptor
    Receptor (biochemistry)

    In biochemistry, a receptor is a protein molecule, embedded in either the plasma membrane or cytoplasm of a cell, to which a mobile signaling molecule may attach....
     protein.
  5. Relay and amplification of the received hormonal signal via a signal transduction
    Signal transduction

    In biology, 'signal transduction' refers to any process by which a cell converts one kind of signal or stimulus into another. Most processes of signal transduction involve ordered sequences of biochemistry chemical reaction inside the cell, which are carried out by enzymes, activated by Second messenger systems, resulting in a signal tran...
     process: This then leads to a cellular response. The reaction of the target cells may then be recognized by the original hormone-producing cells, leading to a down-regulation in hormone production. This is an example of a homeostatic
    Homeostasis

    Homeostasis is the property of a system, either open system or closed system, that regulates its internal environment and tends to maintain a stable, constant condition....
     negative feedback loop.
  6. Degradation of the hormone.


As can be inferred from the hierarchical diagram, hormone biosynthetic cells are typically of a specialized cell type, residing within a particular endocrine gland
Endocrine system

The endocrine system is a system of small organs that involve the release of extracellular signaling molecules known as hormones. The endocrine system is instrumental in regulating metabolism, human development , and tissue and also plays a part in determining Mood ....
, such as thyroid gland, ovaries
Ovary

The ovary is an ovum-producing reproductive organ, often found in pairs as part of the vertebrate female reproductive system. Ovaries in females are homology to testicle in males, in that they are both gonads and endocrine glands....
, and testes). Hormones exit their cell of origin via exocytosis
Exocytosis

Exocytosis is the durable process by which a cell directs the contents of secretory Vesicle_ out of the cell membrane. These membrane-bound vesicles contain soluble proteins to be secreted to the extracellular environment, as well as membrane proteins and lipids that are sent to become components of the cell membrane....
 or another means of membrane transport
Cell membrane

The cell membrane is the interface between the cellular machinery inside the cell and the fluid outside.It is a semipermeable lipid bilayer found in all cell ....
. The hierarchical model is an oversimplification of the hormonal signaling process. Cellular recipients of a particular hormonal signal may be one of several cell types that reside within a number of different tissues, as is the case for insulin
Insulin

Insulin is a hormone with extensive effects on both metabolism and several other body systems . Insulin causes most of the body's cells to take up glucose from the blood , storing it as glycogen in the liver and muscle, and stops use of fat as an energy source....
, which triggers a diverse range of systemic physiological effects. Different tissue types may also respond differently to the same hormonal signal. Because of this, hormonal signaling is elaborate and hard to dissect.

Interactions with receptors

Most hormones initiate a cellular response by initially combining with either a specific intracellular
Intracellular

Not to be confused with intercellular, meaning "between cells".In cell biology, molecular biology and related fields, the word intracellular means "inside the cell "....
 or cell membrane associated
Membrane protein

A membrane protein is a protein molecule that is attached to, or associated with the membrane of a cell or an organelle. More than half of all proteins interact with membranes....
 receptor
Receptor (biochemistry)

In biochemistry, a receptor is a protein molecule, embedded in either the plasma membrane or cytoplasm of a cell, to which a mobile signaling molecule may attach....
 protein. A cell may have several different receptors that recognize the same hormone and activate different signal transduction
Signal transduction

In biology, 'signal transduction' refers to any process by which a cell converts one kind of signal or stimulus into another. Most processes of signal transduction involve ordered sequences of biochemistry chemical reaction inside the cell, which are carried out by enzymes, activated by Second messenger systems, resulting in a signal tran...
 pathways, or alternatively different hormones and their receptors may invoke the same biochemical pathway.

For many hormones, including most protein hormones, the receptor is membrane associated and embedded in the plasma membrane at the surface of the cell. The interaction of hormone and receptor typically triggers a cascade of secondary effects within the cytoplasm
Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm is the part of a Cell that is enclosed within the plasma membrane. In eukaryote cells the cytoplasm contains organelles, such as mitochondrion, that are filled with liquid kept separate from the rest of the cytoplasm by biological membranes....
 of the cell, often involving phosphorylation
Phosphorylation

Phosphorylation is the addition of a phosphate group to a protein or other organic molecule. Protein phosphorylation in particular plays a significant role in a wide range of cellular processes....
 or dephosphorylation of various other cytoplasmic proteins, changes in ion channel
Ion channel

Ion channels are pore-forming proteins that help establish and control the small voltage gradient across the plasma membrane of all living cell s by allowing the flow of ions down their electrochemical gradient....
 permeability, or increased concentrations of intracellular molecules that may act as secondary messengers (e.g. cyclic AMP). Some protein hormones also interact with intracellular
Intracellular

Not to be confused with intercellular, meaning "between cells".In cell biology, molecular biology and related fields, the word intracellular means "inside the cell "....
 receptors located in the cytoplasm
Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm is the part of a Cell that is enclosed within the plasma membrane. In eukaryote cells the cytoplasm contains organelles, such as mitochondrion, that are filled with liquid kept separate from the rest of the cytoplasm by biological membranes....
 or nucleus
Cell nucleus

In cell biology, the nucleus , also sometimes referred to as the "control center", is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in all eukaryote cell ....
 by an intracrine
Intracrine

Intracrine refers to a hormone that acts inside a cell . Steroid hormones act through cell receptor and are thus considered as intracrines. In contrast, peptide or protein hormones generally act as endocrines, autocrines or paracrines by binding to their receptors present on the cell surface....
 mechanism.

For hormones such as steroid
Steroid hormone

Steroid hormones are steroids that act as hormones. Steroid hormones can be grouped into five groups by the receptor s to which they bind: glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, androgens, estrogens, and progestagens....
 or thyroid
Thyroid hormone

The thyroid hormones, thyroxine and triiodothyronine , are tyrosine-based hormones produced by the thyroid gland. An important component in the synthesis of thyroid hormones is iodine....
 hormones, their receptors are located intracellularly
Intracellular

Not to be confused with intercellular, meaning "between cells".In cell biology, molecular biology and related fields, the word intracellular means "inside the cell "....
 within the cytoplasm
Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm is the part of a Cell that is enclosed within the plasma membrane. In eukaryote cells the cytoplasm contains organelles, such as mitochondrion, that are filled with liquid kept separate from the rest of the cytoplasm by biological membranes....
 of their target cell. In order to bind their receptors these hormones must cross the cell membrane. The combined hormone-receptor complex
Protein complex

A multiprotein complex is a group of two or more proteins. Protein complexes are a form of quaternary structure. Proteins in a protein complex are linked by non-covalent protein-protein interactions, and different protein complexes have different degrees of stability over time....
 then moves across the nuclear membrane into the nucleus of the cell, where it binds to specific DNA sequences, effectively amplifying or suppressing the action of certain genes
Gênes

G?nes is the name of a d?partement in France of the First French Empire in present Italy. It was named after the city Genoa. It was formed in 1805, when Napoleon Bonaparte occupied the Republic of Genoa....
, and affecting protein synthesis
Protein synthesis

Protein synthesis is the creation of proteins using DNA and RNA. Proteins can often be synthesized directly from genes by Translation mRNA. When a protein is harmful and needs to be available on short notice or in large quantities, a protein precursor is produced....
. However, it has been shown that not all steroid receptors are located intracellularly
Intracellular

Not to be confused with intercellular, meaning "between cells".In cell biology, molecular biology and related fields, the word intracellular means "inside the cell "....
, some are plasma membrane associated.

An important consideration, dictating the level at which cellular signal transduction
Signal transduction

In biology, 'signal transduction' refers to any process by which a cell converts one kind of signal or stimulus into another. Most processes of signal transduction involve ordered sequences of biochemistry chemical reaction inside the cell, which are carried out by enzymes, activated by Second messenger systems, resulting in a signal tran...
 pathways are activated in response to a hormonal signal is the effective concentration
Concentration

In chemistry, concentration is the measure of how much of a given chemical substance there is mixed with another substance. This can apply to any sort of chemical mixture, but most frequently the concept is limited to homogeneous solutions, where it refers to the amount of solute in the solvent....
 of hormone-receptor complexes that are formed. Hormone-receptor complex concentrations are effectively determined by three factors:

  1. The number of hormone molecules available for complex formation
  2. The number of receptor molecules available for complex formation and
  3. The binding affinity
    Dissociation constant

    In chemistry and biochemistry, a dissociation constant is a specific type of equilibrium constant that measures the propensity of a larger object to separate reversibly into smaller components, as...
     between hormone and receptor.


The number of hormone molecules available for complex formation is usually the key factor in determining the level at which signal transduction
Signal transduction

In biology, 'signal transduction' refers to any process by which a cell converts one kind of signal or stimulus into another. Most processes of signal transduction involve ordered sequences of biochemistry chemical reaction inside the cell, which are carried out by enzymes, activated by Second messenger systems, resulting in a signal tran...
 pathways are activated. The number of hormone molecules available being determined by the concentration of circulating hormone, which is in turn influenced by the level and rate at which they are secreted by biosynthetic cells. The number of receptors at the cell surface of the receiving cell can also be varied as can the affinity
Dissociation constant

In chemistry and biochemistry, a dissociation constant is a specific type of equilibrium constant that measures the propensity of a larger object to separate reversibly into smaller components, as...
 between the hormone and its receptor.

Physiology of hormones

Most cells are capable of producing one or more molecules, which act as signaling molecules to other cells, altering their growth, function, or metabolism. The classical hormones produced by cells in the endocrine glands mentioned so far in this article are cellular products, specialized to serve as regulators at the overall organism level. However they may also exert their effects solely within the tissue in which they are produced and originally released.

The rate of hormone biosynthesis and secretion is often regulated by a homeostatic
Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the property of a system, either open system or closed system, that regulates its internal environment and tends to maintain a stable, constant condition....
 negative feedback
Negative feedback

Negative feedback feeds part of a system's output, inverted, into the system's input; generally with the result that fluctuations are attenuated....
 control mechanism. Such a mechanism depends on factors which influence the metabolism
Metabolism

Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that occur in living organisms in order to maintain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments....
 and excretion
Excretion

Excretion is the process of eliminating waste products of metabolism and other non-useful materials. It is an essential process in all forms of life....
 of hormones. Thus, higher hormone concentration alone cannot trigger the negative feedback mechanism. Negative feedback must be triggered by overproduction of an "effect" of the hormone.

Hormone secretion can be stimulated and inhibited by:
  • Other hormones (stimulating- or releasing-hormones)
  • Plasma concentrations of ions or nutrients, as well as binding globulin
    Globulin

    Globulin is one of the two types of blood plasma proteins, the other being serum albumin. This generic term encompasses a heterogeneous series of families of proteins, with larger molecules and less soluble in pure water than albumin, which migrate less than albumin during Serum protein electrophoresis....
    s
  • Neuron
    Neuron

    Neurons are responsive cell in the nervous system that process and transmit information by electrochemical Signal . They are the core components of the brain, the vertebrate spinal cord, the invertebrate ventral nerve cord, and the peripheral nerves....
    s and mental activity
  • Environmental changes, e.g., of light or temperature


One special group of hormones is the tropic hormones that stimulate the hormone production of other endocrine glands
Endocrine system

The endocrine system is a system of small organs that involve the release of extracellular signaling molecules known as hormones. The endocrine system is instrumental in regulating metabolism, human development , and tissue and also plays a part in determining Mood ....
. For example, thyroid-stimulating hormone
Thyroid-stimulating hormone

Thyroid-stimulating hormone is a peptide hormone synthesized and secreted by thyrotrope cells in the anterior pituitary gland which regulates the endocrine function of the thyroid gland....
 (TSH) causes growth and increased activity of another endocrine gland, the thyroid
Thyroid

The thyroid is one of the largest endocrine glands in the body. This gland is found in the neck inferior to the thyroid cartilage and at approximately the same level as the cricoid cartilage....
, which increases output of thyroid hormone
Thyroid hormone

The thyroid hormones, thyroxine and triiodothyronine , are tyrosine-based hormones produced by the thyroid gland. An important component in the synthesis of thyroid hormones is iodine....
s.

A recently-identified class of hormones is that of the "hunger hormones" - ghrelin
Ghrelin

Ghrelin is a hormone produced mainly by P/D1 cells lining the fundus of the human stomach and epsilon cells of the pancreas that stimulates appetite....
, orexin
Orexin

Orexins, also called hypocretins, are the common names given to a pair of highly excitatory neuropeptide hormones that were simultaneously discovered by two groups of researchers in rat brains....
 and PYY 3-36 - and "satiety hormones" - e.g., leptin
Leptin

Leptin is a 16 Atomic mass unit protein hormone that plays a key role in regulating energy intake and energy expenditure, including appetite and metabolism....
, obestatin
Obestatin

Obestatin is a putative hormone that is potentially produced in the cells lining the stomach and small intestine of several mammals including humans....
, nesfatin-1
Nesfatin-1

Nesfatin-1 is a naturally occurring protein produced by the brain of mammals. Japanese scientists discovered in 2006 that it is responsible for regulating appetite and production of adipose tissue....
.

In order to release active hormones quickly into the circulation
Circulation

Circulation may refer to:*Circulatory system, a biological organ system whose primary function is to move substances to and from cells*Circulation , the path integral of the fluid velocity around a closed curve...
, hormone biosynthetic cells may produce and store biologically inactive hormones in the form of pre-
Prehormone

A prehormone is a biochemical substance secreted by glandular tissue and has minimal or no significant biological activity, but it is converted in peripheral tissues into an active hormone....
 or prohormones
Prohormone

A prohormone is a substance that is a precursor to a hormone, usually having minimal hormonal effect by itself. The term has been used in medical science since the middle of the 20th century....
. These can then be quickly converted into their active hormone form in response to a particular stimulus.

Effects of hormone

Hormones have the following effects on the body:

  • stimulation or inhibition of growth
  • mood
    Mood

    Mood may refer to:*Mood *Grammatical mood*Mood , a city in Iran*Mood , hip hop artists*Moods ...
     swings
  • induction or suppression of apoptosis
    Apoptosis

    Apoptosis is the process of programmed cell death that may occur in multicellular organisms. Programmed Cell death involves a series of biochemical events leading to a characteristic cell Morphology and death, in more specific terms, a series of biochemical events that lead to a variety of morphological changes, including Bleb , changes...
     (programmed cell death)
  • activation or inhibition of the immune system
    Immune system

    An immune system is a collection of biological processes within an organism that protects against disease by identifying and killing pathogens and tumour cells....
  • regulation of metabolism
    Metabolism

    Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that occur in living organisms in order to maintain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments....
  • preparation of the body for fighting, fleeing, mating
    Mating

    In biology, mating is the pairing of same-sex, opposite-sex or hermaphrodite organisms for copulation and, in social animals, also to raise their offspring....
    , and other activity
  • preparation of the body for a new phase of life, such as puberty
    Puberty

    Puberty refers to the process of physical changes by which a child's body becomes an adult body capable of reproduction. Puberty is initiated by hormone signals from the brain to the gonads ....
    , caring for offspring, and menopause
    Menopause

    The Menopause is the permanent cessation of menstruation which occurs a considerable length of time before the end of the lifespan.The word was first applied to humans, and because of this it literally means the cessation of monthly cycles or menstrual cycles, from the Greek roots meno and pausis ....
  • control of the reproductive cycle


A hormone may also regulate the production and release of other hormones. Hormone signals control the internal environment of the body through homeostasis
Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the property of a system, either open system or closed system, that regulates its internal environment and tends to maintain a stable, constant condition....
.

Chemical classes of hormones

Vertebrate
Vertebrate

Vertebrates are members of the subphylum Vertebrata, chordates with Vertebras or Vertebral columns. The grouping sometimes includes the hagfish, which have no vertebrae, but are genetically quite closely related to lampreys, which do have vertebrae....
 hormones fall into three chemical classes:

  • Amine
    Amine

    Amines are organic compounds and functional groups that contain a base nitrogen atom with a lone pair. Amines are derivative s of ammonia, wherein one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by organic substituents such as alkyl and aryl groups....
    -derived hormones are derivatives of the amino acid
    Amino acid

    In chemistry, an amino acid is a molecule containing both amine and carboxyl functional groups. These molecules are particularly important in biochemistry, where this term refers to alpha-amino acids with the general formula H2NCHRCOOH, where R is an organic substituent....
    s tyrosine
    Tyrosine

    Tyrosine or 4-hydroxyphenylalanine, is one of the 20 amino acids that are used by cell to protein biosynthesis proteins. This is a non-essential amino acid and it is found in casein....
     and tryptophan
    Tryptophan

    Tryptophan is one of the 20 List of standard amino acids, as well as an essential amino acid in the human diet. It is encoded in the standard genetic code as the codon UGG....
    . Examples are catecholamine
    Catecholamine

    Catecholamines are chemical compounds derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Their name is derived from the fact that they contain catechol and amine moieties....
    s and thyroxine
    Thyroxine

    Thyroxine, or 3,5,3',5'-tetra?iodothyronine , a form of thyroid hormones is the major hormone secreted by the follicular cells of the thyroid gland....
    .
  • Peptide hormone
    Peptide hormone

    Peptide hormones are a class of peptide that are secreted into the blood stream and have endocrine functions in living animals. Peptide hormones are increasingly being identified in plants with important roles in cell-to-cell communication and plant defence....
    s consist of chains of amino acids. Examples of small peptide hormones are TRH
    Thyrotropin-releasing hormone

    Thyrotropin-releasing hormone , also called thyrotropin-releasing factor , thyroliberin or protirelin, is a tropic hormone peptide hormone that stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone and prolactin by the anterior pituitary....
     and vasopressin
    Vasopressin

    Arginine vasopressin , also known as vasopressin, argipressin or antidiuretic hormone , is a hormone found in most mammals, including humans....
    . Peptides composed of scores or hundreds of amino acids are referred to as protein
    Protein

    Proteins are organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of adjacent amino acid Residue ....
    s. Examples of protein hormones include insulin
    Insulin

    Insulin is a hormone with extensive effects on both metabolism and several other body systems . Insulin causes most of the body's cells to take up glucose from the blood , storing it as glycogen in the liver and muscle, and stops use of fat as an energy source....
     and growth hormone. More complex protein hormones bear carbohydrate
    Carbohydrate

    Carbohydrates or saccharides are the most abundant of the four major classes of biomolecules. They fill numerous roles in living things, such as the storage and transport of energy and structural components ....
     side chains and are called glycoprotein
    Glycoprotein

    Not to be confused with peptidoglycan or proteoglycan.Glycoproteins are proteins that contain oligosaccharide chains covalently attached to their Peptide side-chains....
     hormones. Luteinizing hormone
    Luteinizing hormone

    Luteinizing hormone is a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland.* In the female, an acute rise of LH ? the LH surge ? triggers ovulation....
    , follicle-stimulating hormone
    Follicle-stimulating hormone

    Follicle-stimulating hormone is a hormone synthesized and secreted by gonadotropes in the anterior pituitary gland. FSH regulates the development, growth, pubertal maturation, and reproductive processes of the human body....
     and thyroid-stimulating hormone
    Thyroid-stimulating hormone

    Thyroid-stimulating hormone is a peptide hormone synthesized and secreted by thyrotrope cells in the anterior pituitary gland which regulates the endocrine function of the thyroid gland....
     are glycoprotein hormones.
  • Lipid
    Lipid

    Lipids are broadly defined as any fat-soluble , naturally-occurring molecule, such as fats, oils, waxes, cholesterol, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins , monoglycerides, diglycerides, phospholipids, and others....
     and phospholipid
    Phospholipid

    File:Phospholipid.svgFile:phospholipid_structure.pngFile:Phosphatidyl-Choline.svgPhospholipids are a class of lipids and are a major component of all cell membranes....
    -derived hormones derive from lipids such as linoleic acid
    Linoleic acid

    Linoleic acid is an unsaturated omega-6 fatty acid. It is a colorless liquid. In physiological literature, it is called 18:2. Chemically, linoleic acid is a carboxylic acid with an 18-carbon chain and two cis double bonds; the first double bond is located at the sixth carbon from the omega end....
     and arachidonic acid
    Arachidonic acid

    Arachidonic acid is an omega-6 fatty acid 20:4.It is the counterpart to the saturated arachidic acid found in peanut oil, ...
     and phospholipids. The main classes are the steroid hormones that derive from cholesterol
    Cholesterol

    Cholesterol is a lipidic, waxy alcohol found in the cell membranes and transported in the blood plasma of all animals. It is an essential component of mammalian cell membranes where it is required to establish proper membrane permeability and membrane fluidity....
     and the eicosanoid
    Eicosanoid

    In biochemistry, eicosanoids are lipid signaling made by oxygenation of twenty-carbon essential fatty acids, .They exert complex control over many bodily systems, mainly in inflammation or Immune system, and as messengers in the central nervous system....
    s. Examples of steroid hormones are testosterone
    Testosterone

    Testosterone is a steroid hormone from the androgen group. In mammals, testosterone is primarily secreted in the testis of males and the ovaries of females, although small amounts are also secreted by the adrenal glands....
     and cortisol
    Cortisol

    Cortisol is a corticosteroid hormone or glucocorticoid produced by the adrenal cortex, that is part of the adrenal gland . It is usually referred to as the "stress hormone" as it is involved in response to stress and anxiety, controlled by Corticotropin-releasing hormone....
    . Sterol
    Sterol

    Sterols are an important class of organic molecules. They occur naturally in plants, animals and fungi, with the most familiar type of animal sterol being cholesterol, which has been shown to contribute to high blood pressure and heart disease....
     hormones such as calcitriol
    Calcitriol

    Calcitriol or 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol is the active form of vitamin D found in the body . It increases the absorption of calcium and phosphate from the gastrointestinal tract and kidneys and inhibits release of calcitonin....
     are a homologous
    Homology (biology)

    In evolutionary biology, homology refers to any similarity between characteristics that is due to their common descent. The word homologous derives from the ancient Greek ??????e??, 'to agree'....
     system. The adrenal cortex
    Adrenal cortex

    Situated along the perimeter of the adrenal gland, the adrenal cortex mediates the stress response through the production of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids, including aldosterone and cortisol respectively....
     and the gonad
    Gonad

    The gonad is the organ that makes gametes. The gonads in males are the testes and the gonads in females are the ovaries. The product, gametes, are haploid germ cells....
    s are primary sources of steroid hormones. Examples of eicosanoid
    Eicosanoid

    In biochemistry, eicosanoids are lipid signaling made by oxygenation of twenty-carbon essential fatty acids, .They exert complex control over many bodily systems, mainly in inflammation or Immune system, and as messengers in the central nervous system....
    s are the widely studied prostaglandin
    Prostaglandin

    A prostaglandin is any member of a group of lipid compounds that are derived enzymatically from fatty acids and have important functions in the animal body....
    s.


Pharmacology

Many hormones and their analogue
Analog (chemistry)

In chemistry, analogs or analogues are chemical compound in which one or more individual atoms have been replaced, either with a different atom, or with a different functional group....
s are used as medication
Medication

A pharmaceutical drug, also referred to as medicine or medicament, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease....
. The most commonly prescribed hormones are estrogen
Estrogen

Estrogens are a group of steroid compounds, named for their importance in the estrous cycle, and functioning as the primary female sex hormone....
s and progestagen
Progestagen

Progestagens are a group of hormones including progesterone.The progestagens are one of the five major classes of steroid hormones, in addition to the estrogens, androgens, mineralocorticoids, and glucocorticoids....
s (as methods of hormonal contraception
Hormonal contraception

Hormonal contraception refers to birth control methods that act on the hormone system.Currently, all hormonal contraceptives are designed for use by women rather than men, though research on a male oral contraceptive has been underway for some time....
 and as HRT
Hormone replacement therapy

Hormone replacement therapy may refer to:*Hormone replacement therapy *Hormone replacement therapy *Hormone replacement therapy *Androgen replacement therapy ...
), thyroxine
Thyroxine

Thyroxine, or 3,5,3',5'-tetra?iodothyronine , a form of thyroid hormones is the major hormone secreted by the follicular cells of the thyroid gland....
 (as levothyroxine
Levothyroxine

levothyroxine, also L-thyroxine, synthetic thyroxine, or 3,5,3',5'-tetraiodo-L-thyronine, is a synthetic form of thyroxine ....
, for hypothyroidism
Hypothyroidism

Hypothyroidism is the disease state in humans and in animals caused by insufficient production of thyroid hormone by the thyroid gland. Cretinism is a form of hypothyroidism found in infants....
) and steroid
Steroid

A steroid is a terpenoid lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton with four fused rings, generally arranged in a 6-6-6-5 fashion.Steroids vary by the functional groups attached to these rings and the oxidation state of the rings....
s (for autoimmune disease
Autoimmune disease

Autoimmune diseases arise from an overactive immune response of the body against substances and tissues normally present in the body. In other words, the body attacks its own cells....
s and several respiratory disorders
Pulmonology

File:Lungs_open.jpgIn medicine, pulmonology is the specialty that deals with diseases of the lungs and the respiratory tract. It is called chest medicine and respiratory medicine in some countries and areas....
). Insulin
Insulin

Insulin is a hormone with extensive effects on both metabolism and several other body systems . Insulin causes most of the body's cells to take up glucose from the blood , storing it as glycogen in the liver and muscle, and stops use of fat as an energy source....
 is used by many diabetics
Diabetes mellitus

Diabetes mellitus , often referred to simply as diabetes , is a syndrome of disordered metabolism, usually due to a combination of genetic disorder and environmental causes, resulting in abnormally high blood sugar levels ....
. Local preparations for use in otolaryngology
Otolaryngology

Otolaryngology is the branch of medicine that specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of ear, nose, throat, and head and neck disorders. The full name of the specialty is otolaryngology-head and neck surgery. Practitioners are called otolaryngologists-head and neck surgeons, or sometimes otorhinolaryngologists ....
 often contain pharmacologic
Pharmacology

Pharmacology is the study of drug action. More specifically it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and exogenous chemicals that alter normal biochemical function....
 equivalents of adrenaline, while steroid
Steroid

A steroid is a terpenoid lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton with four fused rings, generally arranged in a 6-6-6-5 fashion.Steroids vary by the functional groups attached to these rings and the oxidation state of the rings....
 and vitamin D
Vitamin D

Vitamin D is a group of fat-soluble prohormones, the two major forms of which are vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 . The term vitamin D also refers to metabolites and other analogues of these substances....
 creams are used extensively in dermatological
Dermatology

Dermatology is the branch of medicine dealing with the skin and Skin disease, a unique specialty with both medical and surgical aspects. The name of this specialty originated in the form of the words dermologie and, a little later, dermatologia ....
 practice.

A "pharmacologic dose" of a hormone is a medical usage referring to an amount of a hormone far greater than naturally occurs in a healthy body. The effects of pharmacologic doses of hormones may be different from responses to naturally-occurring amounts and may be therapeutically useful. An example is the ability of pharmacologic doses of glucocorticoid
Glucocorticoid

Glucocorticoids are a class of steroid hormones which bind to the glucocorticoid receptor , which is present in almost every animal cell.GCs are part of the feedback mechanism in the immune system which turns immune activity down....
 to suppress inflammation
Inflammation

Inflammation is the complex biological response of Blood vessel tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. It is a protective attempt by the organism to remove the injurious stimuli as well as initiate the healing process for the tissue....
.

Important human hormones

Spelling is not uniform for many hormones. Current North American and international usage is estrogen, gonadotropin, while British usage retains the Greek diphthong
Diphthong

In phonetics, a diphthong, or , is a contour vowel?that is, a unitary vowel that changes vowel quality during its pronunciation, or "glides", with a glissando of the tongue from one articulation to another, as in the English words eye, boy, and cow. This contrasts with "pure" vowels, or monophthongs, where the tongue is held s...
 in oestrogen and favors the earlier spelling gonadotrophin (from trophe ‘nourishment, sustenance’ rather than trope ‘turning, change’.

Structure Name Abbrev-
iation 		Tissue Cells Mechanism Target Tissue Effect >- | amine - tryptophan Melatonin
Melatonin

Melatonin , also known chemically as N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine, is a naturally occurring hormone found in most animals, including humans, and some other living organisms, including algae....
 (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine) 		pineal gland
Pineal gland

The pineal gland is a small endocrine system gland in the vertebrate brain. It produces melatonin, a hormone that affects the modulation of wake/sleep patterns and photoperiodic functions....
  		pinealocyte
Pinealocyte

Pinealocytes are the main cell s of the pineal gland. They produce and secrete melatonin. Pinealocytes have an organelle called the synaptic ribbon; this is considered to be a specific marker for pinealocytes....
 		 antioxidant
Antioxidant

An antioxidant is a molecule capable of slowing or preventing the Redox of other molecules. Oxidation is a chemical reaction that transfers electrons from a substance to an oxidizing agent....
 and causes drowsiness

|- | amine - tryptophan 		Serotonin
Serotonin

Serotonin is a monoamine neurotransmitter synthesized in serotonergic neurons in the central nervous system and enterochromaffin cells in the gastrointestinal tract of animals including humans....
  		5-HT CNS
Central nervous system

The central nervous system is the part of the nervous system that functions to coordinate the activity of all parts of the bodies of multicellular organisms....
, GI tract
Gastrointestinal tract

The digestive tract is the system of Organ s within multicellular animals that takes in food, digestion it to extract energy and nutrients, and expels the remaining waste....
 		 enterochromaffin cell
>- | amine - tyrosine 		Thyroxine
Thyroxine

Thyroxine, or 3,5,3',5'-tetra?iodothyronine , a form of thyroid hormones is the major hormone secreted by the follicular cells of the thyroid gland....
 (or tetraiodothyronine) (a thyroid hormone
Thyroid hormone

The thyroid hormones, thyroxine and triiodothyronine , are tyrosine-based hormones produced by the thyroid gland. An important component in the synthesis of thyroid hormones is iodine....
) 		T4 thyroid gland thyroid epithelial cell
Thyroid epithelial cell

Thyroid epithelial cells are cells in the thyroid gland that produce and secrete thyroxine and triiodothyronine .The main function of the thyroid gland is to take iodine, found in many foods, and convert it into thyroid hormones: thyroxine and triiodothyronine .Thyroid cells are the only cells in the body which can absorb iodine....
  		direct less active form of thyroid hormone
Thyroid hormone

The thyroid hormones, thyroxine and triiodothyronine , are tyrosine-based hormones produced by the thyroid gland. An important component in the synthesis of thyroid hormones is iodine....
: increase the basal metabolic rate
Basal metabolic rate

Basal metabolic rate is the amount of energy expended while at rest in a neutrally temperate environment, in the post-absorptive state . The release of energy in this state is sufficient only for the functioning of the vital organs, such as the heart, lungs, brain and the rest of the nervous system, liver, kidneys, sex organs, muscles and sk...
 & sensitivity to catecholamine
Catecholamine

Catecholamines are chemical compounds derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Their name is derived from the fact that they contain catechol and amine moieties....
s, affect protein synthesis
Protein synthesis

Protein synthesis is the creation of proteins using DNA and RNA. Proteins can often be synthesized directly from genes by Translation mRNA. When a protein is harmful and needs to be available on short notice or in large quantities, a protein precursor is produced....
 |- | amine - tyrosine 		Triiodothyronine
Triiodothyronine

Triiodothyronine, carbonhydrogeniodinenitrogenoxygen, also known as T3, is a thyroid hormone.Thyroid-stimulating hormone activates the production of thyroxine and T3....
 (a thyroid hormone
Thyroid hormone

The thyroid hormones, thyroxine and triiodothyronine , are tyrosine-based hormones produced by the thyroid gland. An important component in the synthesis of thyroid hormones is iodine....
) 		T3 thyroid gland thyroid epithelial cell
Thyroid epithelial cell

Thyroid epithelial cells are cells in the thyroid gland that produce and secrete thyroxine and triiodothyronine .The main function of the thyroid gland is to take iodine, found in many foods, and convert it into thyroid hormones: thyroxine and triiodothyronine .Thyroid cells are the only cells in the body which can absorb iodine....
  		direct potent form of thyroid hormone
Thyroid hormone

The thyroid hormones, thyroxine and triiodothyronine , are tyrosine-based hormones produced by the thyroid gland. An important component in the synthesis of thyroid hormones is iodine....
: increase the basal metabolic rate
Basal metabolic rate

Basal metabolic rate is the amount of energy expended while at rest in a neutrally temperate environment, in the post-absorptive state . The release of energy in this state is sufficient only for the functioning of the vital organs, such as the heart, lungs, brain and the rest of the nervous system, liver, kidneys, sex organs, muscles and sk...
 & sensitivity to catecholamine
Catecholamine

Catecholamines are chemical compounds derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Their name is derived from the fact that they contain catechol and amine moieties....
s, affect protein synthesis
Protein synthesis

Protein synthesis is the creation of proteins using DNA and RNA. Proteins can often be synthesized directly from genes by Translation mRNA. When a protein is harmful and needs to be available on short notice or in large quantities, a protein precursor is produced....


|- | amine - tyrosine (cat
Catecholamine

Catecholamines are chemical compounds derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Their name is derived from the fact that they contain catechol and amine moieties....
) 		Epinephrine
Epinephrine

Epinephrine is a hormone and neurotransmitter.Epinephrine increases the "fight or flight" response of the Sympathetic nervous system of the autonomic nervous system....
 (or adrenaline) 		EPI adrenal medulla
Adrenal medulla

The adrenal medulla is part of the adrenal gland. It is located at the center of the gland, being surrounded by the adrenal cortex.Basic...
 		 chromaffin cell
Chromaffin cell

Chromaffin cells are neuroendocrine cells found in the adrenal medulla of the adrenal gland and in other autonomic ganglion of the sympathetic nervous system....
 		 Fight-or-flight response
Fight-or-flight response

'The 'fight-or-flight response', also called the fright, fight or flight response', 'hyperarousal' or the 'acute stress response', was first described by Walter Cannon in 1915....
: Boosts the supply of oxygen
Oxygen

Oxygen no O2 produced; 2) O2 produced, but absorbed in oceans & seabed rock; 3) O2 starts to gas out of the oceans, but is absorbed by land surfaces and formation of ozone layer; 4-5) O2 sinks filled and the gas accumulates]]...
 and glucose
Glucose

Glucose , a monosaccharide also known as grape sugar, blood sugar, or corn sugar, is a very important carbohydrate in biology....
 to the brain
Brain

The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate, and most invertebrate, animals. Some primitive animals such as cnidarian and echinoderm have a decentralized nervous system without a brain, while sponges lack any nervous system at all....
 and muscles (by increasing heart rate
Heart rate

Heart rate is a measure of the number of heart beats per minute . The average resting human heart rate is about 70 bpm for adult males and 75 bpm for adult females....
 and stroke volume
Stroke volume

In cardiovascular physiology, stroke volume is the volume of blood pumped from one ventricles of the heart of the heart with each beat. It is calculated by subtracting the volume of blood in the ventricle at the end of a beat from the volume of blood just prior to the beat ....
, vasodilation
Vasodilation

Vasodilation refers to the widening of blood vessels resulting from relaxation of smooth muscle cells within the vessel walls, particularly in the large arteries, smaller arterioles and large veins....
, increasing catalysis
Catalysis

Catalysis is the process in which the reaction rate of a chemical reaction is either increased or decreased by means of a chemical substance known as a catalyst....
 of glycogen
Glycogen

Glycogen is a polysaccharide of glucose which functions as the secondary short term energy storage in animal cells. It is made primarily by the liver and the muscles, but can also be made by the brain and stomach....
 in liver, breakdown of lipid
Lipid

Lipids are broadly defined as any fat-soluble , naturally-occurring molecule, such as fats, oils, waxes, cholesterol, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins , monoglycerides, diglycerides, phospholipids, and others....
s in fat cells
Adipocyte

Adipocytes are the cell s that primarily compose adipose tissue, specialized in storing energy as fat.There are two types of adipose tissue, white adipose tissue and brown adipose tissue , which are also known as white fat and brown fat, respectively, and comprise two types of fat cells....
. dilate the pupil
Pupil

The pupil is the sphere that is located in the center of the Iris of the eye and that controls the amount of light that enters the eye. It appears black because most of the light entering the pupil is absorbed by the biological tissue inside the eye....
s Suppress non-emergency bodily processes (e.g. digestion
Digestion

Digestion is the mechanical and chemical breaking down of food into smaller components, to a form that can be Absorption, for instance, by a blood stream....
) Suppress immune system
Immune system

An immune system is a collection of biological processes within an organism that protects against disease by identifying and killing pathogens and tumour cells....
 |- | amine - tyrosine (cat
Catecholamine

Catecholamines are chemical compounds derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Their name is derived from the fact that they contain catechol and amine moieties....
) 		Norepinephrine
Norepinephrine

Norepinephrine or noradrenaline is a catecholamine with dual roles as a hormone and a neurotransmitter.As a stress hormone, norepinephrine affects parts of the brain where attention and responding actions are controlled....
 (or noradrenaline) 		NRE adrenal medulla
Adrenal medulla

The adrenal medulla is part of the adrenal gland. It is located at the center of the gland, being surrounded by the adrenal cortex.Basic...
 chromaffin cell
Chromaffin cell

Chromaffin cells are neuroendocrine cells found in the adrenal medulla of the adrenal gland and in other autonomic ganglion of the sympathetic nervous system....
 		 Fight-or-flight response
Fight-or-flight response

'The 'fight-or-flight response', also called the fright, fight or flight response', 'hyperarousal' or the 'acute stress response', was first described by Walter Cannon in 1915....
: Boosts the supply of oxygen
Oxygen

Oxygen no O2 produced; 2) O2 produced, but absorbed in oceans & seabed rock; 3) O2 starts to gas out of the oceans, but is absorbed by land surfaces and formation of ozone layer; 4-5) O2 sinks filled and the gas accumulates]]...
 and glucose
Glucose

Glucose , a monosaccharide also known as grape sugar, blood sugar, or corn sugar, is a very important carbohydrate in biology....
 to the brain
Brain

The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate, and most invertebrate, animals. Some primitive animals such as cnidarian and echinoderm have a decentralized nervous system without a brain, while sponges lack any nervous system at all....
 and muscles (by increasing heart rate
Heart rate

Heart rate is a measure of the number of heart beats per minute . The average resting human heart rate is about 70 bpm for adult males and 75 bpm for adult females....
 and stroke volume
Stroke volume

In cardiovascular physiology, stroke volume is the volume of blood pumped from one ventricles of the heart of the heart with each beat. It is calculated by subtracting the volume of blood in the ventricle at the end of a beat from the volume of blood just prior to the beat ....
, vasoconstriction
Vasoconstriction

Vasoconstriction is the narrowing of the blood vessels resulting from contraction of the muscular wall of the vessels, particularly the large arteries, arterioles and veins....
 and increased blood pressure
Blood pressure

Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels, and constitutes one of the principal vital signs. The pressure of the circulating blood decreases as it moves away from the heart through artery and capillary, and toward the heart through veins....
, breakdown of lipid
Lipid

Lipids are broadly defined as any fat-soluble , naturally-occurring molecule, such as fats, oils, waxes, cholesterol, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins , monoglycerides, diglycerides, phospholipids, and others....
s in fat cells
Adipocyte

Adipocytes are the cell s that primarily compose adipose tissue, specialized in storing energy as fat.There are two types of adipose tissue, white adipose tissue and brown adipose tissue , which are also known as white fat and brown fat, respectively, and comprise two types of fat cells....
. Increase skeletal muscle
Skeletal muscle

They generally contract voluntarily , although they can contract involuntarily through Reflex action. The whole muscle is wrapped in a special type of connective tissue, epimysium....
 readiness. |- | amine - tyrosine (cat
Catecholamine

Catecholamines are chemical compounds derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Their name is derived from the fact that they contain catechol and amine moieties....
) 		Dopamine
Dopamine

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals, including both vertebrates and invertebrates. In the human brain, this phenethylamine functions as a neurotransmitter, activating the five types of dopamine receptors ? D1, D2, D3, D4 and D5, and their variants....
 (or prolactin inhibiting hormone 		DPM, PIH or DA kidney
Kidney

The kidneys are Organ that have numerous biological roles. Their primary role is to maintain the homeostasis balance of bodily fluids by filtering and secreting Metabolomics#Metabolitess and minerals from the blood and excreting them, along with water , as urine....
, hypothalamus
Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland ....
 Chromaffin cell
Chromaffin cell

Chromaffin cells are neuroendocrine cells found in the adrenal medulla of the adrenal gland and in other autonomic ganglion of the sympathetic nervous system....
s in kidney
Dopamine neurons of the arcuate nucleus
Arcuate nucleus

The arcuate nucleus is an aggregation of neurons in the mediobasal hypothalamus, adjacent to the third ventricle and the median eminence. The arcuate nucleus includes several important populations of neurons, including: Neuroendocrine neurons, Centrally-projecting neurons and Others....
 in hypothalamus 		Increase heart
Heart

The heart is a muscle organ in all vertebrates responsible for pumping blood through the blood vessels by repeated, rhythmic contractions, or a similar structure in annelids, mollusks, and arthropods....
 rate and blood pressure
Blood pressure

Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels, and constitutes one of the principal vital signs. The pressure of the circulating blood decreases as it moves away from the heart through artery and capillary, and toward the heart through veins....
 
Inhibit release of prolactin
Prolactin

Prolactin or Luteotropic hormone is a peptide hormone primarily associated with lactation. In breastfeeding, the act of an infant suckling the nipple stimulates the production of prolactin, which fills the breast with milk via a process called lactogenesis, in preparation for the next feed....
 and TRH
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone , also called thyrotropin-releasing factor , thyroliberin or protirelin, is a tropic hormone peptide hormone that stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone and prolactin by the anterior pituitary....
 from anterior pituitary
Anterior pituitary

The anterior pituitary comprises the Anterior#Usage in human anatomy lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system. Unlike the posterior pituitary, the anterior lobe is genuinely glandular, hence the root adeno in its name....
 |- | peptide 		Antimullerian hormone (or mullerian inhibiting factor or hormone) AMH testes Sertoli cell
Sertoli cell

A Sertoli cell is a 'nurse' cell of the testicle which is part of a seminiferous tubule.It is activated by follicle-stimulating hormone, and has FSH-receptor on its membranes....
  		Inhibit release of prolactin
Prolactin

Prolactin or Luteotropic hormone is a peptide hormone primarily associated with lactation. In breastfeeding, the act of an infant suckling the nipple stimulates the production of prolactin, which fills the breast with milk via a process called lactogenesis, in preparation for the next feed....
 and TRH
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone , also called thyrotropin-releasing factor , thyroliberin or protirelin, is a tropic hormone peptide hormone that stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone and prolactin by the anterior pituitary....
 from anterior pituitary
Anterior pituitary

The anterior pituitary comprises the Anterior#Usage in human anatomy lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system. Unlike the posterior pituitary, the anterior lobe is genuinely glandular, hence the root adeno in its name....


|- | peptide 		Adiponectin
Adiponectin

Adiponectin is a protein which in humans is encoded by the ADIPOQ gene....
  		Acrp30 adipose tissue
Adipose tissue

In histology, adipose tissue or fat is loose connective tissue composed of adipocytes. Adipose tissue is derived from lipoblasts. Its main role is to store energy in the form of fat, although it also cushions and Thermal insulation the body....
 
>- | peptide 		Adrenocorticotropic hormone
Adrenocorticotropic hormone

Adrenocorticotropic hormone is a polypeptide tropic hormone produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. It is an important component of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and is often produced in response to biological stress ....
 (or corticotropin) 		ACTH anterior pituitary
Anterior pituitary

The anterior pituitary comprises the Anterior#Usage in human anatomy lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system. Unlike the posterior pituitary, the anterior lobe is genuinely glandular, hence the root adeno in its name....
  		corticotrope
Corticotrope

Corticotropes are cell in the anterior pituitary which produce adrenocorticotrophic hormone and melanocyte stimulating hormone....
  		cAMP synthesis of corticosteroid
Corticosteroid

Corticosteroids are a class of steroid hormones that are produced in the adrenal cortex. Corticosteroids are involved in a wide range of physiology systems such as stress , immune system and regulation of inflammation, carbohydrate metabolism, protein catabolism, blood electrolyte levels, and behavior....
s (glucocorticoid
Glucocorticoid

Glucocorticoids are a class of steroid hormones which bind to the glucocorticoid receptor , which is present in almost every animal cell.GCs are part of the feedback mechanism in the immune system which turns immune activity down....
s and androgen
Androgen

Androgen is the generic term for any natural or synthetic compound, usually a steroid hormone, that stimulates or controls the development and maintenance of masculine characteristics in vertebrates by binding to androgen receptors....
s) in adrenocortical cells
Adrenal cortex

Situated along the perimeter of the adrenal gland, the adrenal cortex mediates the stress response through the production of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids, including aldosterone and cortisol respectively....
 |- | peptide 		Angiotensinogen and angiotensin
Angiotensin

Angiotensin causes blood vessels to constrict, and drives blood pressure up. It is part of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, which is a major target for drugs that lower blood pressure....
  		AGT liver
Liver

The liver is a vital organ present in vertebrates and some other animals; it has a wide range of functions, a few of which are detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion....
 		 IP3 vasoconstriction
Vasoconstriction

Vasoconstriction is the narrowing of the blood vessels resulting from contraction of the muscular wall of the vessels, particularly the large arteries, arterioles and veins....
 release of aldosterone
Aldosterone

Aldosterone is a hormone that increases the reabsorption of sodium and water and the release of potassium in the kidneys. This increases the volume of fluid in the body, and drives blood pressure up....
 from adrenal cortex
Adrenal cortex

Situated along the perimeter of the adrenal gland, the adrenal cortex mediates the stress response through the production of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids, including aldosterone and cortisol respectively....
 dipsogen
Dipsogen

A dipsogen is an agent that causes thirst. ...
.

|- | peptide 		Antidiuretic hormone (or vasopressin, arginine vasopressin) ADH posterior pituitary
Posterior pituitary

The posterior pituitary comprises the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system....
 		 Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons in hypothalamus
Magnocellular neurosecretory cell
Magnocellular neurosecretory cell

Magnocellular neurosecretory cells are large cell s within the supraoptic nucleus and paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. They are also found in smaller numbers in accessory cell groups between these two nuclei, the largest one being the nucleus circularis....
s in posterior pituitary 		varies retention of water in kidney
Kidney

The kidneys are Organ that have numerous biological roles. Their primary role is to maintain the homeostasis balance of bodily fluids by filtering and secreting Metabolomics#Metabolitess and minerals from the blood and excreting them, along with water , as urine....
s
moderate vasoconstriction
Vasoconstriction

Vasoconstriction is the narrowing of the blood vessels resulting from contraction of the muscular wall of the vessels, particularly the large arteries, arterioles and veins....
 
Release ACTH
Adrenocorticotropic hormone

Adrenocorticotropic hormone is a polypeptide tropic hormone produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. It is an important component of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and is often produced in response to biological stress ....
 in anterior pituitary
Anterior pituitary

The anterior pituitary comprises the Anterior#Usage in human anatomy lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system. Unlike the posterior pituitary, the anterior lobe is genuinely glandular, hence the root adeno in its name....
 |- | peptide 		Atrial-natriuretic peptide (or atriopeptin) ANP heart
Heart

The heart is a muscle organ in all vertebrates responsible for pumping blood through the blood vessels by repeated, rhythmic contractions, or a similar structure in annelids, mollusks, and arthropods....
 		 cGMP
>- | peptide 		Calcitonin
Calcitonin

Calcitonin is a 32-amino acid linear polypeptide hormone that is producedin humans primarily by the Parafollicular cell cells of the thyroid, and in many other animals in the ultimobranchial body....
  		CT thyroid gland parafollicular cell
Parafollicular cell

Parafollicular cells are cells in the thyroid which produce and secrete calcitonin. They are located adjacent to the thyroid follicles and reside in the connective tissue....
 		 cAMP Construct bone, reduce blood Ca2+
Calcium

Calcium is the chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. It has an atomic mass of 40.078 amu. Calcium is a soft grey alkaline earth metal, and is the fifth most abundant element by mass in the earth's Crust ....


|- | peptide 		Cholecystokinin
Cholecystokinin

Cholecystokinin is a peptide hormone of the gastrointestinal system responsible for stimulating the digestion of fat and protein. Cholecystokinin, previously called pancreozymin, is synthesised by I-cells in the mucosal epithelium of the small intestine and secreted in the duodenum, the first segment of the small intestine, and ca...
  		CCK duodenum
Duodenum

The duodenum is the first section of the small intestine in most higher vertebrates, including mammals, reptiles, and birds. In fish, the divisions of the small intestine are not as clear and the terms anterior intestine or proximal intestine may be used instead of duodenum....
 		 Release of digestive enzyme
Enzyme

Enzymes are biomolecules that catalysis chemical reactions. Almost all enzymes are proteins. In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process are called Substrate , and the enzyme converts them into different molecules, the products....
s from pancreas
Pancreas

The pancreas is a gland Organ in the digestive system and endocrine system of vertebrates. It is both an endocrine gland , as well as an exocrine gland, secreting pancreatic juice containing Digestion enzymes that pass to the small intestine....
 Release of bile
Bile

Bile or gall is a bitter yellow or green fluid secreted by hepatocytes from the liver of most vertebrates. In many species, bile is stored in the gallbladder between meals and upon eating is discharged into the duodenum where the bile aids the process of digestion of lipids....
 from gallbladder
Gallbladder

The gallbladder is a small non-vital Organ which aids in the digestive process and concentrates bile produced in the liver....
 hunger
Hunger

Hunger is a feeling experienced when one has a desire to eat. The often unpleasant feeling originates in the hypothalamus and is released through receptors in the liver....
 suppressant

|- | peptide 		Corticotropin-releasing hormone
Corticotropin-releasing hormone

Corticotropin-releasing hormone , originally named corticotropin-releasing factor , and also called corticoliberin, is a polypeptide hormone and neurotransmitter involved in the stress ....
  		CRH hypothalamus
Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland ....
 		 cAMP Release ACTH
Adrenocorticotropic hormone

Adrenocorticotropic hormone is a polypeptide tropic hormone produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. It is an important component of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and is often produced in response to biological stress ....
 from anterior pituitary
Anterior pituitary

The anterior pituitary comprises the Anterior#Usage in human anatomy lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system. Unlike the posterior pituitary, the anterior lobe is genuinely glandular, hence the root adeno in its name....


|- | peptide 		Erythropoietin
Erythropoietin

Erythropoietin, or its alternative erythropoetin or EPO, is a glycoprotein hormone that controls erythropoiesis, or red blood cell production....
  		EPO kidney
Kidney

The kidneys are Organ that have numerous biological roles. Their primary role is to maintain the homeostasis balance of bodily fluids by filtering and secreting Metabolomics#Metabolitess and minerals from the blood and excreting them, along with water , as urine....
 		 Extraglomerular mesangial cell
Extraglomerular mesangial cell

Extraglomerular mesangial cells are light-staining cells in the kidney found outside the glomerulus, near the vascular pole and macula densa....
s 		Stimulate erythrocyte production

|- | peptide 		Follicle-stimulating hormone
Follicle-stimulating hormone

Follicle-stimulating hormone is a hormone synthesized and secreted by gonadotropes in the anterior pituitary gland. FSH regulates the development, growth, pubertal maturation, and reproductive processes of the human body....
  		FSH anterior pituitary
Anterior pituitary

The anterior pituitary comprises the Anterior#Usage in human anatomy lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system. Unlike the posterior pituitary, the anterior lobe is genuinely glandular, hence the root adeno in its name....
 		 gonadotrope
Gonadotrope

Gonadotropes are basophilic cell in the anterior pituitary which produce the gonadotropins follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone ....
 		 cAMP In female: stimulates maturation of Graafian follicles in ovary
Ovary

The ovary is an ovum-producing reproductive organ, often found in pairs as part of the vertebrate female reproductive system. Ovaries in females are homology to testicle in males, in that they are both gonads and endocrine glands....
. In male: spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis

Spermatogenesis is the process by which male spermatogonia develop into mature spermatozoa. Spermatozoa are the mature male gametes in many sexually reproducing organisms....
, enhances production of androgen-binding protein by the Sertoli cell
Sertoli cell

A Sertoli cell is a 'nurse' cell of the testicle which is part of a seminiferous tubule.It is activated by follicle-stimulating hormone, and has FSH-receptor on its membranes....
s of the testes

|- | peptide 		Gastrin
Gastrin

In humans, gastrin is a hormone that stimulates secretion of gastric acid by the parietal cells of the stomach and aids in gastric motility. It is released by G cells in the stomach, duodenum, and the pancreas....
  		GRP stomach
Stomach

In most mammals, the stomach is a hollow muscular organ of the gastrointestinal tract involved in the second phase of digestion, following mastication....
, duodenum
Duodenum

The duodenum is the first section of the small intestine in most higher vertebrates, including mammals, reptiles, and birds. In fish, the divisions of the small intestine are not as clear and the terms anterior intestine or proximal intestine may be used instead of duodenum....
 		 G cell
G cell

In anatomy, the G cell is a type of cell in the stomach that secretes gastrin. It works in conjunction with gastric chief cells and parietal cells....
  		Secretion of gastric acid
Gastric acid

Gastric acid is one of the main secretions of the stomach, together with several enzymes and intrinsic factor. Chemically it is an acid solution with a pH of 1 to 2 in the stomach lumen , consisting mainly of hydrochloric acid , and large quantities of potassium chloride and sodium chloride ....
 by parietal cell
Parietal cell

Parietal cells, or oxyntic cells, are the stomach epithelium cell s that secrete gastric acid and intrinsic factor....
s

|- | peptide 		Ghrelin
Ghrelin

Ghrelin is a hormone produced mainly by P/D1 cells lining the fundus of the human stomach and epsilon cells of the pancreas that stimulates appetite....
  		stomach
Stomach

In most mammals, the stomach is a hollow muscular organ of the gastrointestinal tract involved in the second phase of digestion, following mastication....
 		 P/D1 cell
P/D1 cell

Cell lining the Fundus of the human stomach that produce ghrelin. Removal of these cells in gastric bypass surgery has a profound impact on later appetite regulation....
  		Stimulate appetite
Appetite

The appetite is the desire to eating food, felt as hunger. Appetite exists in all higher lifeforms, and serves to regulate adequate energy intake to maintain metabolism needs....
, secretion of growth hormone
Growth hormone

Growth hormone is a peptide hormone. It stimulates human development and cell reproduction in humans and other animals. It is a 191-amino acid, single chain polypeptide hormone which is synthesized, stored, and secreted by the somatotroph cells within the lateral wings of the anterior pituitary gland....
 from anterior pituitary gland

|- | peptide 		Glucagon
Glucagon

Glucagon is an important hormone involved in carbohydrate metabolism. Produced by the pancreas, it is released when the glucose level in the blood is low , causing the liver to convert stored glycogen into glucose and release it into the bloodstream....
  		GCG pancreas
Pancreas

The pancreas is a gland Organ in the digestive system and endocrine system of vertebrates. It is both an endocrine gland , as well as an exocrine gland, secreting pancreatic juice containing Digestion enzymes that pass to the small intestine....
 		 alpha cells cAMP glycogenolysis
Glycogenolysis

Glycogenolysis is the catabolism of glycogen by removal of a glucose monomer through cleavage with inorganic phosphate to produce glucose-1-phosphate....
 and gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis

Gluconeogenesis is a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such as lactic acid, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids....
 in liver
Liver

The liver is a vital organ present in vertebrates and some other animals; it has a wide range of functions, a few of which are detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion....
 increases blood glucose level

|- | peptide 		Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone , also known as Luteinizing-hormone releasing hormone , is a tropic hormone peptide hormone responsible for the release of follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone from the anterior pituitary....
  		GnRH hypothalamus
Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland ....
 		 IP3 Release of FSH
Follicle-stimulating hormone

Follicle-stimulating hormone is a hormone synthesized and secreted by gonadotropes in the anterior pituitary gland. FSH regulates the development, growth, pubertal maturation, and reproductive processes of the human body....
 and LH
Luteinizing hormone

Luteinizing hormone is a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland.* In the female, an acute rise of LH ? the LH surge ? triggers ovulation....
 from anterior pituitary
Anterior pituitary

The anterior pituitary comprises the Anterior#Usage in human anatomy lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system. Unlike the posterior pituitary, the anterior lobe is genuinely glandular, hence the root adeno in its name....
.

|- | peptide 		Growth hormone-releasing hormone GHRH hypothalamus
Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland ....
 		 IP3 Release GH
Growth hormone

Growth hormone is a peptide hormone. It stimulates human development and cell reproduction in humans and other animals. It is a 191-amino acid, single chain polypeptide hormone which is synthesized, stored, and secreted by the somatotroph cells within the lateral wings of the anterior pituitary gland....
 from anterior pituitary
Anterior pituitary

The anterior pituitary comprises the Anterior#Usage in human anatomy lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system. Unlike the posterior pituitary, the anterior lobe is genuinely glandular, hence the root adeno in its name....
 |- | peptide 		Human chorionic gonadotropin
Human chorionic gonadotropin

Human chorionic gonadotropin is a glycoprotein hormone produced in pregnancy that is made by the the developing embryo soon after Conception and later by the syncytiotrophoblast ....
  		hCG placenta
Placenta

The placenta or afterbirth is a highly vascularized ephemeral organ present in Placentalia vertebrates that connects the developing fetal tissues to the uterine wall....
 		 syncytiotrophoblast
Syncytiotrophoblast

Syncytiotrophoblasts are multinucleated cells found in the placenta of embryos.They are the outer syncytial layer of the trophoblasts and actively invade the uterus....
 cells 		cAMP promote maintenance of corpus luteum
Corpus luteum

The corpus luteum is a temporary endocrine structure in mammals, involved in production of progestogen, which is needed to maintain pregnancy....
 during beginning of pregnancy
Pregnancy

Pregnancy is the carrying of one or more offspring, known as a fetus or embryo, inside the uterus of a female. In a pregnancy, there can be multiple gestations, as in the case of twins or Multiple birth....
 Inhibit immune
Immune system

An immune system is a collection of biological processes within an organism that protects against disease by identifying and killing pathogens and tumour cells....
 response, towards the human embryo.

|- | peptide 		Human placental lactogen
Human placental lactogen

Human placental lactogen , also called human chorionic somatomammotropin, is a polypeptide placental hormone. Its structure and function is similar to that of human growth hormone....
  		HPL placenta
Placenta

The placenta or afterbirth is a highly vascularized ephemeral organ present in Placentalia vertebrates that connects the developing fetal tissues to the uterine wall....
 		 increase production of insulin
Insulin

Insulin is a hormone with extensive effects on both metabolism and several other body systems . Insulin causes most of the body's cells to take up glucose from the blood , storing it as glycogen in the liver and muscle, and stops use of fat as an energy source....
 and IGF-1 increase insulin resistance
Insulin resistance

Insulin resistance is the condition in which normal amounts of insulin are inadequate to produce a normal Insulin#Physiological_effects from fat, muscle and liver cell ....
 and carbohydrate
Carbohydrate

Carbohydrates or saccharides are the most abundant of the four major classes of biomolecules. They fill numerous roles in living things, such as the storage and transport of energy and structural components ....
 intolerance

|- | peptide 		Growth hormone
Growth hormone

Growth hormone is a peptide hormone. It stimulates human development and cell reproduction in humans and other animals. It is a 191-amino acid, single chain polypeptide hormone which is synthesized, stored, and secreted by the somatotroph cells within the lateral wings of the anterior pituitary gland....
  		GH or hGH anterior pituitary
Anterior pituitary

The anterior pituitary comprises the Anterior#Usage in human anatomy lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system. Unlike the posterior pituitary, the anterior lobe is genuinely glandular, hence the root adeno in its name....
  		somatotrope
Somatotrope

Somatotropes are cells in the anterior pituitary which produce growth hormone. These cells constitute 30-40% of anterior pituitary cells. They respond by releasing HGH in response to GHRH or are inhibited by GHIH , both received from the hypothalamus via the hypophyseal portal system vein and the secondary plexus....
s 		stimulates growth
Human development (biology)

Human development is the process of growing to maturity. In biological terms, this entails growth from a one-celled zygote to an adult human being....
 and cell
Cell (biology)

The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known Life organisms. It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living, and is often called the building bricks of life....
 reproduction Release Insulin-like growth factor 1
Insulin-like growth factor 1

Insulin-like growth factor 1 that was once called somatomedin C, is a polypeptide protein hormone similar in molecular structure to insulin. It plays an important role in childhood growth and continues to have Anabolism in adults....
 from liver
Liver

The liver is a vital organ present in vertebrates and some other animals; it has a wide range of functions, a few of which are detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion....


|- | peptide 		Inhibin
Inhibin

Inhibin is a peptide that is an Enzyme inhibitor of FSH synthesis and secretion, and participates in the regulation of the menstrual cycle....
  		testes, ovary
Ovary

The ovary is an ovum-producing reproductive organ, often found in pairs as part of the vertebrate female reproductive system. Ovaries in females are homology to testicle in males, in that they are both gonads and endocrine glands....
, fetus
Fetus

A fetus is a developing mammal or other viviparous vertebrate, after the embryonic stage and before childbirth. The plural is fetuses, or sometimes feti....
 		 Sertoli cells of testes
granulosa cells of ovary
trophoblast
Trophoblast

Trophoblasts are cells forming the outer layer of a blastocyst, which provide nutrients to the embryo and develop into a large part of the placenta....
s in fetus 		anterior pituitary
Anterior pituitary

The anterior pituitary comprises the Anterior#Usage in human anatomy lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system. Unlike the posterior pituitary, the anterior lobe is genuinely glandular, hence the root adeno in its name....
 		 Inhibit production of FSH

|- | peptide 		Insulin
Insulin

Insulin is a hormone with extensive effects on both metabolism and several other body systems . Insulin causes most of the body's cells to take up glucose from the blood , storing it as glycogen in the liver and muscle, and stops use of fat as an energy source....
  		INS pancreas
Pancreas

The pancreas is a gland Organ in the digestive system and endocrine system of vertebrates. It is both an endocrine gland , as well as an exocrine gland, secreting pancreatic juice containing Digestion enzymes that pass to the small intestine....
 		 beta cells tyrosine kinase
Tyrosine kinase

A tyrosine kinase is an enzyme that can transfer a phosphate group from Adenosine triphosphate to a tyrosine residue in a protein. Tyrosine kinases are a subgroup of the larger class of protein kinases....
 		 Intake of glucose
Glucose

Glucose , a monosaccharide also known as grape sugar, blood sugar, or corn sugar, is a very important carbohydrate in biology....
, glycogenesis
Glycogenesis

Glycogenesis is the process of glycogen synthesis, in which glucose molecules are added to chains of glycogen. This process is activated by insulin in response to high glucose levels, for example after a carbohydrate containing meal....
 and glycolysis
Glycolysis

Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose, C6H12O6, into pyruvate, C3H5O3-....
 in liver
Liver

The liver is a vital organ present in vertebrates and some other animals; it has a wide range of functions, a few of which are detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion....
 and muscle
MUSCLE

MUSCLE is public domain, multiple sequence alignment software for protein and nucleotide sequences.MUSCLE is integrated into UGENE bioinformatics tool as a plugin....
 from blood intake of lipid
Lipid

Lipids are broadly defined as any fat-soluble , naturally-occurring molecule, such as fats, oils, waxes, cholesterol, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins , monoglycerides, diglycerides, phospholipids, and others....
s and synthesis of triglyceride
Triglyceride

is a glyceride in which the glycerol is esterified with three fatty acids. It is the main constituent of vegetable oil and animal fats....
s in adipocytes Other anabolic
Anabolism

Anabolism is the set of metabolic pathways that construct molecules from smaller units. These reactions require energy. One way of categorizing metabolic processes, whether at the cell ular, organ or organism level is as 'anabolic' or as 'catabolism', which is the opposite....
 effects
Insulin-like growth factor
Insulin-like growth factor

The insulin-like growth factors are polypeptides with high Homology to insulin. IGFs are part of a complex system that cells use to communicate with their physiology environment....
 (or somatomedin) 		IGF liver
Liver

The liver is a vital organ present in vertebrates and some other animals; it has a wide range of functions, a few of which are detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion....
 		 Hepatocyte
Hepatocyte

Hepatocytes make up 70-80% of the cytoplasmic mass of the liver.These cells are involved in protein synthesis, protein storage and transformation of carbohydrates, synthesis of cholesterol, bile salts and phospholipids, and detoxification, modification and excretion of exogenous and endogenous substances....
s 		tyrosine kinase
Tyrosine kinase

A tyrosine kinase is an enzyme that can transfer a phosphate group from Adenosine triphosphate to a tyrosine residue in a protein. Tyrosine kinases are a subgroup of the larger class of protein kinases....
 		 insulin-like effects regulate cell growth
Cell growth

The term cell growth is used in the contexts of Cell development and cell division . When used in the context of cell division, it refers to growth of cell populations, where one cell grows and divides to produce two "daughter cells"....
 and development

|- | peptide 		Leptin
Leptin

Leptin is a 16 Atomic mass unit protein hormone that plays a key role in regulating energy intake and energy expenditure, including appetite and metabolism....
  		LEP adipose tissue
Adipose tissue

In histology, adipose tissue or fat is loose connective tissue composed of adipocytes. Adipose tissue is derived from lipoblasts. Its main role is to store energy in the form of fat, although it also cushions and Thermal insulation the body....
  		decrease of appetite
Appetite

The appetite is the desire to eating food, felt as hunger. Appetite exists in all higher lifeforms, and serves to regulate adequate energy intake to maintain metabolism needs....
 and increase of metabolism
Metabolism

Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that occur in living organisms in order to maintain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments....
.

|- | peptide 		Luteinizing hormone
Luteinizing hormone

Luteinizing hormone is a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland.* In the female, an acute rise of LH ? the LH surge ? triggers ovulation....
  		LH anterior pituitary
Anterior pituitary

The anterior pituitary comprises the Anterior#Usage in human anatomy lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system. Unlike the posterior pituitary, the anterior lobe is genuinely glandular, hence the root adeno in its name....
 		 gonadotrope
Gonadotrope

Gonadotropes are basophilic cell in the anterior pituitary which produce the gonadotropins follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone ....
s 		cAMP In female: ovulation
Ovulation

Ovulation is the process in the menstrual cycle by which a mature ovarian follicle ruptures and discharges an ovum that participates in reproduction....
 In male: stimulates Leydig cell
Leydig cell

Leydig cells, also known as interstitial cells of Leydig, are found adjacent to the seminiferous tubules in the testes. They can secrete testosterone and are often closely related to nerves....
 production of testosterone
Testosterone

Testosterone is a steroid hormone from the androgen group. In mammals, testosterone is primarily secreted in the testis of males and the ovaries of females, although small amounts are also secreted by the adrenal glands....
 |- | peptide 		Melanocyte stimulating hormone MSH or a-MSH anterior pituitary
Anterior pituitary

The anterior pituitary comprises the Anterior#Usage in human anatomy lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system. Unlike the posterior pituitary, the anterior lobe is genuinely glandular, hence the root adeno in its name....
/pars intermedia
Pars intermedia

Pars intermedia is the boundary between the anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary. It contains three types of cells - Anterior pituitary basophils, chromophobes, and colloid-filled cysts....
 		 Melanotroph
Melanotroph

A Melanotroph is a cell in the pituitary gland which generates melanocyte-stimulating hormone from its precursor Proopiomelanocortin....
  		cAMP melanogenesis by melanocyte
Melanocyte

Melanocytes are cell located in the bottom layer of the skin's epidermis , the middle layer of the eye , the inner ear, meninges, bones and heart....
s in skin
Skin

The skin is the outer covering of the body, also known as the epidermis. It is the largest organ of the integumentary system made up of multiple layers of epithelial biological tissue, and guards the underlying muscles, bones, ligaments and organ s....
 and hair
Hair

Hair is a protein filament that epidermal growth from hair follicle deep within the dermis. The fine, soft hair found on many nonhuman mammals is typically called fur; wool is the characteristically curly hair found on sheep and goats....
Orexin
Orexin

Orexins, also called hypocretins, are the common names given to a pair of highly excitatory neuropeptide hormones that were simultaneously discovered by two groups of researchers in rat brains....
  		hypothalamus
Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland ....
 
>- | peptide 		Oxytocin
Oxytocin

Oxytocin is a mammalian hormone that also acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain.It is best known for its roles in female reproduction: it is released in large amounts after distension of the cervix and vagina during labor, and after stimulation of the nipples, facilitating childbirth and breastfeeding, respectively....
  		OXT posterior pituitary
Posterior pituitary

The posterior pituitary comprises the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system....
 		 Magnocellular neurosecretory cell
Magnocellular neurosecretory cell

Magnocellular neurosecretory cells are large cell s within the supraoptic nucleus and paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. They are also found in smaller numbers in accessory cell groups between these two nuclei, the largest one being the nucleus circularis....
s 		IP3 release breast milk Contraction of cervix
Cervix

The cervix is the lower, narrow portion of the uterus where it joins with the top end of the vagina. It is cylindrical or conical in shape and protrudes through the upper anterior vaginal wall....
 and vagina
Vagina

The vagina is a fibromuscular cylinder tract leading from the uterus to the exterior of the body in female placental mammals and marsupials, or to the cloaca in female birds, monotremes, and some reptiles....
 Involved in orgasm
Orgasm

An orgasm is the conclusion of the Human sexual response cycle#Plateau phase of Human sexual response cycle, and may be experienced by both males and females....
, trust between people. and circadian homeostasis (body temperature, activity level, wakefulness) . |- | peptide 		Parathyroid hormone
Parathyroid hormone

Parathyroid hormone , or parathormone, is secreted by the parathyroid glands as a polypeptide containing 84 amino acids. It acts to increase the concentration of calcium in the blood, whereas calcitonin acts to decrease calcium concentration....
  		PTH parathyroid gland
Parathyroid gland

The parathyroid glands are small endocrine system glands in the neck that produce parathyroid hormone. Humans have four parathyroid glands, which are usually located behind the thyroid gland, and, in rare cases, within the thyroid gland or in the chest....
 		 parathyroid chief cell
Parathyroid chief cell

Parathyroid chief cells are cell in the parathyroid glands which produce parathyroid hormone.The end result of increased secretion by the chief cells of a parathyroid gland is an increase in the blood plasma level of Calcium....
 		 cAMP increase blood Ca2+
Calcium

Calcium is the chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. It has an atomic mass of 40.078 amu. Calcium is a soft grey alkaline earth metal, and is the fifth most abundant element by mass in the earth's Crust ....
: *indirectly stimulate osteoclast
Osteoclast

An osteoclast is a type of bone cell that removes bone tissue by removing its mineralized matrix. This process is known as bone resorption....
s
  • Ca2+ reabsorption in kidney
    Kidney

    The kidneys are Organ that have numerous biological roles. Their primary role is to maintain the homeostasis balance of bodily fluids by filtering and secreting Metabolomics#Metabolitess and minerals from the blood and excreting them, along with water , as urine....
  • activate vitamin D
    Vitamin D

    Vitamin D is a group of fat-soluble prohormones, the two major forms of which are vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 . The term vitamin D also refers to metabolites and other analogues of these substances....
(Slightly) decrease blood phosphate
Phosphate

A phosphate, an inorganic chemical, is a Salt of phosphoric acid. Inorganic phosphates are mining to obtain phosphorus for use in agriculture and industry....
:
  • (decreased reuptake in kidney
    Kidney

    The kidneys are Organ that have numerous biological roles. Their primary role is to maintain the homeostasis balance of bodily fluids by filtering and secreting Metabolomics#Metabolitess and minerals from the blood and excreting them, along with water , as urine....
     but increased uptake from bones
  • activate vitamin D
    Vitamin D

    Vitamin D is a group of fat-soluble prohormones, the two major forms of which are vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 . The term vitamin D also refers to metabolites and other analogues of these substances....
    )


|- | peptide 		Prolactin
Prolactin

Prolactin or Luteotropic hormone is a peptide hormone primarily associated with lactation. In breastfeeding, the act of an infant suckling the nipple stimulates the production of prolactin, which fills the breast with milk via a process called lactogenesis, in preparation for the next feed....
  		PRL anterior pituitary
Anterior pituitary

The anterior pituitary comprises the Anterior#Usage in human anatomy lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system. Unlike the posterior pituitary, the anterior lobe is genuinely glandular, hence the root adeno in its name....
, uterus
Uterus

The uterus is a major female hormone-responsive reproductive sex organ of most mammals, including humans. It is within the uterus that the fetus develops during gestation....
 		 lactotroph
Lactotroph

Lactotrophs are cell in the anterior pituitary which produce prolactin in response to signals including dopamine and estrogen. Dopamine has an inhibitory effect on PRL secretion....
s of anterior pituitary
Decidual cells
Decidual cells

Before the fertilized ovum reaches the uterus, the mucous membrane of the body of the uterus undergoes important changes and is then known as the decidua....
 of uterus 		milk production in mammary glands
sexual gratification
Orgasm

An orgasm is the conclusion of the Human sexual response cycle#Plateau phase of Human sexual response cycle, and may be experienced by both males and females....
 after sexual acts
Human sexual behavior

Human sexual behavior or human sexual practices refers to the manner in which humans experience and express their human sexuality. It encompass a wide range of activities such as strategies to find or attract partners , interactions between individuals, physical intimacy or emotional intimacy, and sexual contact....
 |- | peptide 		Relaxin
Relaxin

Relaxin is a peptide hormone that was first described in 1926 by Frederick Hisaw.The relaxin-like peptide family belongs in the insulin superfamily and consists of 7 peptides of high structural but low sequence similarity; relaxin-1 , 2 and 3, and the insulin-like peptides, INSL3, INSL4, INSL5 and INSL6....
  		RLN uterus
Uterus

The uterus is a major female hormone-responsive reproductive sex organ of most mammals, including humans. It is within the uterus that the fetus develops during gestation....
 		 Decidual cells
Decidual cells

Before the fertilized ovum reaches the uterus, the mucous membrane of the body of the uterus undergoes important changes and is then known as the decidua....
 
>- | peptide 		Secretin
Secretin

Secretin is a peptide hormone produced in the S cells of the duodenum in the crypts of Lieberk?hn. Its primary effect is to regulate the pH of the duodenal contents via the control of gastric acid secretion and buffering with bicarbonate....
  		SCT duodenum
Duodenum

The duodenum is the first section of the small intestine in most higher vertebrates, including mammals, reptiles, and birds. In fish, the divisions of the small intestine are not as clear and the terms anterior intestine or proximal intestine may be used instead of duodenum....
 		 S cell
S cell

S cells are cells which release secretin, found in the jejunum and duodenum. They are stimulated by a drop in pH to 4 or below in the small intestine's lumen....
  		Secretion of bicarbonate
Bicarbonate

In inorganic chemistry, bicarbonate is an intermediate form in the deprotonation of carbonic acid. Its chemical formula is HCO3−....
 from liver
Liver

The liver is a vital organ present in vertebrates and some other animals; it has a wide range of functions, a few of which are detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion....
, pancreas
Pancreas

The pancreas is a gland Organ in the digestive system and endocrine system of vertebrates. It is both an endocrine gland , as well as an exocrine gland, secreting pancreatic juice containing Digestion enzymes that pass to the small intestine....
 and duodenal Brunner's glands Enhances effects of cholecystokinin
Cholecystokinin

Cholecystokinin is a peptide hormone of the gastrointestinal system responsible for stimulating the digestion of fat and protein. Cholecystokinin, previously called pancreozymin, is synthesised by I-cells in the mucosal epithelium of the small intestine and secreted in the duodenum, the first segment of the small intestine, and ca...
 Stops production of gastric juice |- | peptide 		Somatostatin
Somatostatin

Somatostatin is a peptide hormone that regulates the endocrine system and affects neurotransmission and cell proliferation via interaction with G-protein-coupled somatostatin receptors and inhibition of the release of numerous secondary hormones....
  		SRIF hypothalamus
Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland ....
, islets of Langerhans
Islets of Langerhans

The islets of Langerhans are the regions of the pancreas that contain its endocrine cells. Discovered in 1869 by German pathological anatomist Paul Langerhans, the islets of Langerhans constitute approximately 1 to 2% of the mass of the pancreas....
, gastrointestinal system 		delta cell
Delta cell

Delta cells are somatostatin producing cell s.They can be found in the stomach, intestine and the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.In rodents delta-cells are located in the periphery of the islets; in humans the islet architecture is generally less organized and delta-cells are frequently observed inside the islets as well....
s in islets
Neuroendocrince cells of the Periventricular nucleus
Periventricular nucleus

The Periventricular nucleus is a composite structure of the hypothalamus.It should not be confused with the paraventricular nucleus....
 in hypothalamus 		Inhibit release of GH
Growth hormone

Growth hormone is a peptide hormone. It stimulates human development and cell reproduction in humans and other animals. It is a 191-amino acid, single chain polypeptide hormone which is synthesized, stored, and secreted by the somatotroph cells within the lateral wings of the anterior pituitary gland....
 and TRH
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone , also called thyrotropin-releasing factor , thyroliberin or protirelin, is a tropic hormone peptide hormone that stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone and prolactin by the anterior pituitary....
 from anterior pituitary
Anterior pituitary

The anterior pituitary comprises the Anterior#Usage in human anatomy lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system. Unlike the posterior pituitary, the anterior lobe is genuinely glandular, hence the root adeno in its name....
 
Suppress release of gastrin
Gastrin

In humans, gastrin is a hormone that stimulates secretion of gastric acid by the parietal cells of the stomach and aids in gastric motility. It is released by G cells in the stomach, duodenum, and the pancreas....
, cholecystokinin
Cholecystokinin

Cholecystokinin is a peptide hormone of the gastrointestinal system responsible for stimulating the digestion of fat and protein. Cholecystokinin, previously called pancreozymin, is synthesised by I-cells in the mucosal epithelium of the small intestine and secreted in the duodenum, the first segment of the small intestine, and ca...
 (CCK), secretin
Secretin

Secretin is a peptide hormone produced in the S cells of the duodenum in the crypts of Lieberk?hn. Its primary effect is to regulate the pH of the duodenal contents via the control of gastric acid secretion and buffering with bicarbonate....
, motilin
Motilin

Motilin is a 22 amino acid polypeptide hormone which in humans is encoded by the MLN gene.Motilin secreted by M cells that are numerous in crypts of the small intestine, especially in the duodenum and jejunum....
, vasoactive intestinal peptide
Vasoactive intestinal peptide

Vasoactive intestinal peptide is a peptide hormone containing 28 amino acid residue s and is produced in many areas of the human body including the gut, pancreas and suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus in the brain....
 (VIP), gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP), enteroglucagon
Enteroglucagon

Enteroglucagon is a peptide hormone derived from preproglucagon. It is a gastrointestinal hormone, secreted from mucosal cells primarily of the Colon and terminal ileum....
 in gastrointestinal system
Lowers rate of gastric emptying Reduces smooth muscle
Smooth muscle

Smooth muscle is a type of non-striated muscle, found within the tunica media layer of large and small arteries and veins, the urinary bladder, uterus, male and female reproductive tracts, gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, the ciliary muscle, and iris of the eye....
 contractions and blood flow within the intestine
Inhibit release of insulin
Insulin

Insulin is a hormone with extensive effects on both metabolism and several other body systems . Insulin causes most of the body's cells to take up glucose from the blood , storing it as glycogen in the liver and muscle, and stops use of fat as an energy source....
 from beta cells
Inhibit release of glucagon
Glucagon

Glucagon is an important hormone involved in carbohydrate metabolism. Produced by the pancreas, it is released when the glucose level in the blood is low , causing the liver to convert stored glycogen into glucose and release it into the bloodstream....
 from alpha cells
Suppress the exocrine secretory action of pancreas
Pancreas

The pancreas is a gland Organ in the digestive system and endocrine system of vertebrates. It is both an endocrine gland , as well as an exocrine gland, secreting pancreatic juice containing Digestion enzymes that pass to the small intestine....
. |- | peptide 		Thrombopoietin
Thrombopoietin

Thrombopoietin , also known as THPO, is a glycoprotein hormone produced mainly by the liver and the kidney that regulates the production of platelets by the bone marrow....
  		TPO liver
Liver

The liver is a vital organ present in vertebrates and some other animals; it has a wide range of functions, a few of which are detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion....
, kidney
Kidney

The kidneys are Organ that have numerous biological roles. Their primary role is to maintain the homeostasis balance of bodily fluids by filtering and secreting Metabolomics#Metabolitess and minerals from the blood and excreting them, along with water , as urine....
, striated muscle
Striated muscle

Striated muscle is a form of fibres that are combined into parallel fibres. More specifically, it can refer to:* Skeletal muscle* Cardiac muscle~cardiac referring to the heart....
 		 Myocyte
Myocyte

A myocyte is the type of Cell found in muscles. They arise from myoblasts.Each myocyte contains myofibrils, which are long chains of sarcomeres, the contractile units of the cell....
s 		megakaryocyte
Megakaryocyte

The megakaryocyte is a bone marrow cell responsible for the production of blood thrombocytes , which are necessary for normal blood clotting....
s 		produce platelets

|- | peptide 		Thyroid-stimulating hormone
Thyroid-stimulating hormone

Thyroid-stimulating hormone is a peptide hormone synthesized and secreted by thyrotrope cells in the anterior pituitary gland which regulates the endocrine function of the thyroid gland....
 (or thyrotropin) 		TSH anterior pituitary
Anterior pituitary

The anterior pituitary comprises the Anterior#Usage in human anatomy lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system. Unlike the posterior pituitary, the anterior lobe is genuinely glandular, hence the root adeno in its name....
 		 thyrotrope
Thyrotrope

Thyrotropes are cells in the anterior pituitary which produce thyroid stimulating hormone....
s 		cAMP thyroid gland secrete thyroxine
Thyroxine

Thyroxine, or 3,5,3',5'-tetra?iodothyronine , a form of thyroid hormones is the major hormone secreted by the follicular cells of the thyroid gland....
 (T4) and triiodothyronine
Triiodothyronine

Triiodothyronine, carbonhydrogeniodinenitrogenoxygen, also known as T3, is a thyroid hormone.Thyroid-stimulating hormone activates the production of thyroxine and T3....
 (T3)

|- | peptide 		Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone , also called thyrotropin-releasing factor , thyroliberin or protirelin, is a tropic hormone peptide hormone that stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone and prolactin by the anterior pituitary....
  		TRH hypothalamus
Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland ....
 		 Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons IP3 anterior pituitary
Anterior pituitary

The anterior pituitary comprises the Anterior#Usage in human anatomy lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system. Unlike the posterior pituitary, the anterior lobe is genuinely glandular, hence the root adeno in its name....
 		 Release thyroid-stimulating hormone
Thyroid-stimulating hormone

Thyroid-stimulating hormone is a peptide hormone synthesized and secreted by thyrotrope cells in the anterior pituitary gland which regulates the endocrine function of the thyroid gland....
 (primarily)
Stimulate prolactin
Prolactin

Prolactin or Luteotropic hormone is a peptide hormone primarily associated with lactation. In breastfeeding, the act of an infant suckling the nipple stimulates the production of prolactin, which fills the breast with milk via a process called lactogenesis, in preparation for the next feed....
 release

|- | steroid - glu.
Glucocorticoid

Glucocorticoids are a class of steroid hormones which bind to the glucocorticoid receptor , which is present in almost every animal cell.GCs are part of the feedback mechanism in the immune system which turns immune activity down....
 		 Cortisol
Cortisol

Cortisol is a corticosteroid hormone or glucocorticoid produced by the adrenal cortex, that is part of the adrenal gland . It is usually referred to as the "stress hormone" as it is involved in response to stress and anxiety, controlled by Corticotropin-releasing hormone....
  		adrenal cortex
Adrenal cortex

Situated along the perimeter of the adrenal gland, the adrenal cortex mediates the stress response through the production of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids, including aldosterone and cortisol respectively....
 (zona fasciculata
Zona fasciculata

Cells of the zona fasciculata sit directly beneath the zona glomerulosa and are organized in bundles .The zona chiefly produces glucocorticoids and a small amount of weak androgens .Adrenal tumour of the zona fasciculata may lead to primary adrenocortical hypersecretion....
 and zona reticularis
Zona reticularis

The zona reticularis is the innermost layer of the adrenal cortex, lying deep to the zona fasciculata and superficial to the adrenal medulla. The cells are arranged cords that project in different directions giving a net-like appearance ....
 cells) 		direct Stimulation of gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis

Gluconeogenesis is a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such as lactic acid, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids....
 Inhibition of glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissue Mobilization of amino acids from extrahepatic tissues Stimulation of fat breakdown in adipose tissue anti-inflammatory
Anti-inflammatory

Anti-inflammatory refers to the property of a substance or treatment that reduces inflammation. Anti-inflammatory drugs make up about half of analgesics, remedying pain by reducing inflammation as opposed to opioids which affect the brain....
 and immunosuppressive

|- | steroid - min.
Mineralocorticoid

Mineralocorticoids are a class of steroid hormones characterised by their similarity to aldosterone and their influence on salt balance and water balance ....
 		 Aldosterone
Aldosterone

Aldosterone is a hormone that increases the reabsorption of sodium and water and the release of potassium in the kidneys. This increases the volume of fluid in the body, and drives blood pressure up....
  		adrenal cortex
Adrenal cortex

Situated along the perimeter of the adrenal gland, the adrenal cortex mediates the stress response through the production of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids, including aldosterone and cortisol respectively....
 (zona glomerulosa
Zona glomerulosa

The zona glomerulosa of the adrenal gland is the most superficial layer of the adrenal cortex, lying directly beneath the adrenal gland's capsule....
) 		direct Increase blood volume
Blood volume

Blood volume is the volume of blood in a person's circulatory system. A typical adult male human has a blood volume of approximately five litres ....
 by reabsorption of sodium
Sodium

Sodium is an element which has the symbol Na , atomic number 11, atomic mass 23 amu , and a common oxidation number +1. Sodium is a soft, silvery white, highly reactive element and is a member of the alkali metals within "group 1" ....
 in kidneys (primarily) Potassium
Potassium

Potassium is a chemical element. It has the symbol K , atomic number 19, and atomic mass 39.0983. Potassium was first isolated from potash, hence the name....
 and H+
Hydrogen ion

Hydrogen ion is recommended by IUPAC as a general term for all ions of hydrogen and its isotopes. Depending on the charge of the ion, two different classes can be distinguished:...
 secretion in kidney.

|- | steroid - sex (and
Androgen

Androgen is the generic term for any natural or synthetic compound, usually a steroid hormone, that stimulates or controls the development and maintenance of masculine characteristics in vertebrates by binding to androgen receptors....
) 		Testosterone
Testosterone

Testosterone is a steroid hormone from the androgen group. In mammals, testosterone is primarily secreted in the testis of males and the ovaries of females, although small amounts are also secreted by the adrenal glands....
  		testes Leydig cell
Leydig cell

Leydig cells, also known as interstitial cells of Leydig, are found adjacent to the seminiferous tubules in the testes. They can secrete testosterone and are often closely related to nerves....
s 		direct Anabolic: growth of muscle mass and strength, increased bone density
Bone density

Bone density is a medical term referring to the amount of matter per cubic centimeter of bones. It is measured by a procedure called densitometry, often performed in the radiology or nuclear medicine departments of hospitals or clinics....
, growth and strength, Virilizing: maturation
Maturation

Maturation could refer to any of the following:* Fetal development* Developmental biology* Erikson's stages of psychosocial development* Or physical maturation of any biological life form - see individual articles for maturation of different life forms....
 of sex organs, formation of scrotum
Scrotum

In some male mammals the scrotum is a protuberance of skin and muscle containing the testicles. It is an extension of the abdomen, and is located between the penis and anus....
, deepening of voice, growth of beard
Beard

A beard is the hair that grows on a person's chin, cheeks, neck, and the area above the upper lip. Typically, only males going through puberty, or post-pubescent males are able to grow beards....
 and axillary hair.

|- | steroid - sex (and
Androgen

Androgen is the generic term for any natural or synthetic compound, usually a steroid hormone, that stimulates or controls the development and maintenance of masculine characteristics in vertebrates by binding to androgen receptors....
) 		Dehydroepiandrosterone
Dehydroepiandrosterone

Dehydroepiandrosterone is a multi-functional steroid that has been implicated in a broad range of biological effects in humans and other mammals....
  		DHEA testes, ovary
Ovary

The ovary is an ovum-producing reproductive organ, often found in pairs as part of the vertebrate female reproductive system. Ovaries in females are homology to testicle in males, in that they are both gonads and endocrine glands....
, kidney
Kidney

The kidneys are Organ that have numerous biological roles. Their primary role is to maintain the homeostasis balance of bodily fluids by filtering and secreting Metabolomics#Metabolitess and minerals from the blood and excreting them, along with water , as urine....
 		 Zona fasciculata
Zona fasciculata

Cells of the zona fasciculata sit directly beneath the zona glomerulosa and are organized in bundles .The zona chiefly produces glucocorticoids and a small amount of weak androgens .Adrenal tumour of the zona fasciculata may lead to primary adrenocortical hypersecretion....
 and Zona reticularis
Zona reticularis

The zona reticularis is the innermost layer of the adrenal cortex, lying deep to the zona fasciculata and superficial to the adrenal medulla. The cells are arranged cords that project in different directions giving a net-like appearance ....
 cells of kidney
theca cells of ovary
Leydig cellss of testes 		direct Virilization
Virilization

In biology and medicine, virilization refers to the biological development of sex differences, changes which make a male body different from a female body....
, anabolic

|- | steroid - sex (and
Androgen

Androgen is the generic term for any natural or synthetic compound, usually a steroid hormone, that stimulates or controls the development and maintenance of masculine characteristics in vertebrates by binding to androgen receptors....
) 		Androstenedione
Androstenedione

Androstenedione is a 19-carbon steroid hormone produced in the adrenal glands and the gonads as an intermediate step in the biochemistry pathway that produces the androgen testosterone and the estrogens estrone and estradiol....
  		adrenal glands, gonads direct Substrate for estrogen
Estrogen

Estrogens are a group of steroid compounds, named for their importance in the estrous cycle, and functioning as the primary female sex hormone....


|- | steroid - sex (and
Androgen

Androgen is the generic term for any natural or synthetic compound, usually a steroid hormone, that stimulates or controls the development and maintenance of masculine characteristics in vertebrates by binding to androgen receptors....
) 		Dihydrotestosterone
Dihydrotestosterone

Dihydrotestosterone While DHT is best known for its roles in causing male pattern hair loss and prostate problems, it is crucial to virilization and is necessary to mitigate estrogen's effects in men....
  		DHT multiple direct
>- | steroid - sex (est
Estrogen

Estrogens are a group of steroid compounds, named for their importance in the estrous cycle, and functioning as the primary female sex hormone....
) 		Estradiol
Estradiol

Estradiol is a sex hormone. Mislabelled the "female" hormone, it is also present in males; it represents the major estrogen in humans. Estradiol has not only a critical impact on reproductive and sexual functioning, but also affects other organs including bone structure....
  		E2 females: ovary
Ovary

The ovary is an ovum-producing reproductive organ, often found in pairs as part of the vertebrate female reproductive system. Ovaries in females are homology to testicle in males, in that they are both gonads and endocrine glands....
, males testes 		females: granulosa cells, males: Sertoli cell
Sertoli cell

A Sertoli cell is a 'nurse' cell of the testicle which is part of a seminiferous tubule.It is activated by follicle-stimulating hormone, and has FSH-receptor on its membranes....
 		 direct Females: Structural:
  • promote formation of female secondary sex characteristics
  • accelerate height
    Height

    Height is the measurement of vertical distance, but has two meanings in common use. It can either indicate how "tall" something is, or how "high up" it is....
     growth
  • accelerate metabolism
    Metabolism

    Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that occur in living organisms in order to maintain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments....
     (burn fat)
  • reduce muscle
    MUSCLE

    MUSCLE is public domain, multiple sequence alignment software for protein and nucleotide sequences.MUSCLE is integrated into UGENE bioinformatics tool as a plugin....
     mass
  • stimulate endometrial
    Endometrium

    The endometrium is the inner membrane of the mammalian uterus....
     growth
  • increase uterine
    Uterus

    The uterus is a major female hormone-responsive reproductive sex organ of most mammals, including humans. It is within the uterus that the fetus develops during gestation....
     growth
  • maintenance of blood vessel
    Blood vessel

    The blood vessels are the part of the circulatory system that transport blood throughout the body. There are three major types of blood vessels: the artery, which carry the blood away from the heart, the capillary, which enable the actual exchange of water and chemicals between the blood and the tissues; and the veins, which carry blood from...
    s and skin
  • reduce bone resorption
    Bone resorption

    Bone resorption is the process by which osteoclasts break down bone and release the minerals, resulting in a transfer of calcium from bone fluid to the blood....
    , increase bone formation
Protein
Protein

Proteins are organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of adjacent amino acid Residue ....
 synthesis:
  • increase hepatic production of binding proteins
Coagulation
Coagulation

Coagulation is a complex process by which blood forms clots. It is an important part of hemostasis , wherein a damaged blood vessel wall is covered by a platelet and fibrin-containing clot to stop hemorrhage and begin repair of the damaged vessel....
:
  • increase circulating level of factors 2, 7
    Factor VII

    Factor VII is one of the central proteins in the coagulation. It is an enzyme of the serine protease class....
    , 9
    Factor IX

    Factor IX is one of the serine proteases of the coagulation system; it belongs to peptidase family S1. Deficiency of this protein causes Haemophilia B....
    , 10
    Factor X

    Factor X, also known by the eponym Stuart-Prower factor or as thrombokinase, is an enzyme of the coagulation. It is a serine protease ....
    , antithrombin
    Antithrombin

    Antithrombin is a small protein molecule that inactivates several enzymes of the coagulation system. It is a glycoprotein produced by the liver and consists of 432 amino acids....
     III, plasminogen
  • increase platelet
    Platelet

    Platelets, or Thrombocyte, are small, irregularly shaped anuclear cells, 2-4?m in diameter, which are derived from fragmentation of precursor megakaryocytes....
     adhesiveness
Increase HDL
High density lipoprotein

High-density lipoproteins is one of the 5 major groups of lipoproteins which enable lipids like cholesterol and triglycerides to be transported within the water based blood stream....
, triglyceride
Triglyceride

is a glyceride in which the glycerol is esterified with three fatty acids. It is the main constituent of vegetable oil and animal fats....
, height
Height

Height is the measurement of vertical distance, but has two meanings in common use. It can either indicate how "tall" something is, or how "high up" it is....
 growth Decrease LDL
Low density lipoprotein

Low-density lipoprotein is a type of lipoprotein that transports cholesterol and triglycerides from the liver to peripheral tissues. LDL is one of the five major groups of lipoproteins; these groups include chylomicrons, very low-density lipoprotein , intermediate-density lipoprotein , low-density lipoprotein, and high-density lipoprotein ,...
, fat
Fat

Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water. Chemistry, fats are generally ester of glycerol and fatty acids....
 deposition Fluid balance:
  • salt (sodium
    Sodium

    Sodium is an element which has the symbol Na , atomic number 11, atomic mass 23 amu , and a common oxidation number +1. Sodium is a soft, silvery white, highly reactive element and is a member of the alkali metals within "group 1" ....
    ) and water retention
  • increase growth hormone
    Growth hormone

    Growth hormone is a peptide hormone. It stimulates human development and cell reproduction in humans and other animals. It is a 191-amino acid, single chain polypeptide hormone which is synthesized, stored, and secreted by the somatotroph cells within the lateral wings of the anterior pituitary gland....
  • increase cortisol
    Cortisol

    Cortisol is a corticosteroid hormone or glucocorticoid produced by the adrenal cortex, that is part of the adrenal gland . It is usually referred to as the "stress hormone" as it is involved in response to stress and anxiety, controlled by Corticotropin-releasing hormone....
    , SHBG
Gastrointestinal tract:
  • reduce bowel motility
  • increase cholesterol in bile
    Bile

    Bile or gall is a bitter yellow or green fluid secreted by hepatocytes from the liver of most vertebrates. In many species, bile is stored in the gallbladder between meals and upon eating is discharged into the duodenum where the bile aids the process of digestion of lipids....
Melanin:
  • increase pheomelanin, reduce eumelanin
Cancer: support hormone-sensitive breast cancer
Breast cancer

Breast cancer is a cancer that starts in the Cell of the breast in women and men. Worldwide, breast cancer is the second most common type of cancer after lung cancer and the fifth most common cause of cancer death....
s Suppression of production in the body of estrogen is a treatment for these cancers.

Lung function:
  • promote lung function by supporting alveoli.


Males: Prevent apoptosis
Apoptosis

Apoptosis is the process of programmed cell death that may occur in multicellular organisms. Programmed Cell death involves a series of biochemical events leading to a characteristic cell Morphology and death, in more specific terms, a series of biochemical events that lead to a variety of morphological changes, including Bleb , changes...
 of germ cells

|- | steroid - sex (est
Estrogen

Estrogens are a group of steroid compounds, named for their importance in the estrous cycle, and functioning as the primary female sex hormone....
) 		Estrone
Estrone

Estrone is an estrogenic hormone secreted by the ovary as well as adipose.Estrone is one of the three estrogens, which also include estriol and estradiol....
  		ovary
Ovary

The ovary is an ovum-producing reproductive organ, often found in pairs as part of the vertebrate female reproductive system. Ovaries in females are homology to testicle in males, in that they are both gonads and endocrine glands....
  		granulosa cells, Adipocyte
Adipocyte

Adipocytes are the cell s that primarily compose adipose tissue, specialized in storing energy as fat.There are two types of adipose tissue, white adipose tissue and brown adipose tissue , which are also known as white fat and brown fat, respectively, and comprise two types of fat cells....
s 		direct
>- | steroid - sex (est
Estriol

Estriol is one of the three main estrogens produced by the human body. It is only produced in significant amounts during pregnancy as it is made by the placenta....
) 		Estriol
Estriol

Estriol is one of the three main estrogens produced by the human body. It is only produced in significant amounts during pregnancy as it is made by the placenta....
  		placenta
Placenta

The placenta or afterbirth is a highly vascularized ephemeral organ present in Placentalia vertebrates that connects the developing fetal tissues to the uterine wall....
 		 syncytiotrophoblast
Syncytiotrophoblast

Syncytiotrophoblasts are multinucleated cells found in the placenta of embryos.They are the outer syncytial layer of the trophoblasts and actively invade the uterus....
 		 direct
>- | steroid - sex (pro
Progestagen

Progestagens are a group of hormones including progesterone.The progestagens are one of the five major classes of steroid hormones, in addition to the estrogens, androgens, mineralocorticoids, and glucocorticoids....
) 		Progesterone
Progesterone

Progesterone is a C-21 steroid hormone involved in the female menstrual cycle, pregnancy and embryogenesis of humans and other species. Progesterone belongs to a class of hormones called progestogens, and is the major naturally occurring human progestogen....
  		ovary
Ovary

The ovary is an ovum-producing reproductive organ, often found in pairs as part of the vertebrate female reproductive system. Ovaries in females are homology to testicle in males, in that they are both gonads and endocrine glands....
, adrenal glands, placenta
Placenta

The placenta or afterbirth is a highly vascularized ephemeral organ present in Placentalia vertebrates that connects the developing fetal tissues to the uterine wall....
 (when pregnant) 		Granulosa cells theca cells of ovary direct Support pregnancy
Pregnancy

Pregnancy is the carrying of one or more offspring, known as a fetus or embryo, inside the uterus of a female. In a pregnancy, there can be multiple gestations, as in the case of twins or Multiple birth....
: Convert endometrium to secretory stage Make cervical mucus
Cervix

The cervix is the lower, narrow portion of the uterus where it joins with the top end of the vagina. It is cylindrical or conical in shape and protrudes through the upper anterior vaginal wall....
 permeable to sperm. Inhibit immune
Immune system

An immune system is a collection of biological processes within an organism that protects against disease by identifying and killing pathogens and tumour cells....
 response, e.g. towards the human embryo. Decrease uterine smooth muscle
Smooth muscle

Smooth muscle is a type of non-striated muscle, found within the tunica media layer of large and small arteries and veins, the urinary bladder, uterus, male and female reproductive tracts, gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, the ciliary muscle, and iris of the eye....
 contractility Inhibit lactation
Lactation

Lactation describes the secretion of milk from the mammary glands, the process of providing that milk to the young, and the period of time that a mother lactates to feed her young....
 Inhibit onset of labor. Support fetal production of adrenal mineralo- and glucosteroids.

Other: Raise epidermal growth factor-1 levels Increase core temperature during ovulation Reduce spasm
Spasm

A spasm is a sudden, involuntary contraction of a muscle, a group of muscles, or a hollow Organ , or a similarly sudden contraction of an orifice....
 and relax smooth muscle
Smooth muscle

Smooth muscle is a type of non-striated muscle, found within the tunica media layer of large and small arteries and veins, the urinary bladder, uterus, male and female reproductive tracts, gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, the ciliary muscle, and iris of the eye....
 (widen bronchi and regulate mucus
Mucus

In vertebrates, mucus is a slippery secretion produced by, and covering, mucous membranes. It is a viscous colloid containing antiseptic enzymes and immunoglobulins that serves to protect Epithelium in the respiratory,...
) Antiinflammatory
Inflammation

Inflammation is the complex biological response of Blood vessel tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. It is a protective attempt by the organism to remove the injurious stimuli as well as initiate the healing process for the tissue....
 Reduce gall-bladder activity Normalize blood
Blood

Blood is a specialized bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's Cell s ? such as nutrients and oxygen ? and transports waste products away from those same cells....
 clotting and vascular tone, zinc
Zinc

Zinc is a metallic chemical element with the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is a first-row transition metal of the group 12 element of the periodic table....
 and copper
Copper

Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29.It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity....
 levels, cell
Cell (biology)

The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known Life organisms. It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living, and is often called the building bricks of life....
 oxygen
Oxygen

Oxygen no O2 produced; 2) O2 produced, but absorbed in oceans & seabed rock; 3) O2 starts to gas out of the oceans, but is absorbed by land surfaces and formation of ozone layer; 4-5) O2 sinks filled and the gas accumulates]]...
 levels, and use of fat stores for energy. Assist in thyroid
Thyroid

The thyroid is one of the largest endocrine glands in the body. This gland is found in the neck inferior to the thyroid cartilage and at approximately the same level as the cricoid cartilage....
 function and bone
Bone

Bones are rigid organ that form part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates. They function to move, support, and protect the various organs of the body, produce red blood cell and white blood cells and store minerals....
 growth by osteoblast
Osteoblast

An osteoblast is a mononucleate cell that is responsible for bone formation. Osteoblasts produce osteoid, which is composed mainly of Type I collagen....
s Relsilience in bone
Bone

Bones are rigid organ that form part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates. They function to move, support, and protect the various organs of the body, produce red blood cell and white blood cells and store minerals....
, teeth, gum
Gingiva

The gingiva , or gums, consists of the mucosal tissue that lies over the alveolar bone....
s, joint
Joint

A joint is the location at which two or more bones make contact. They are constructed to allow movement and provide mechanical support, and are classified structurally and functionally....
, tendon
Tendon

A tendon is a tough band of fibrous connective tissue that usually connects muscle to bone and is capable of withstanding tension . Tendons are similar to ligaments except that ligaments join one bone to another....
, ligament
Ligament

Ligaments connect bone to bone. In anatomy, the term ligament is used to denote three different types of structures:# Fibrous Tissue that connects bones to other bones....
 and skin
Skin

The skin is the outer covering of the body, also known as the epidermis. It is the largest organ of the integumentary system made up of multiple layers of epithelial biological tissue, and guards the underlying muscles, bones, ligaments and organ s....
 Healing by regulating collagen
Collagen

Collagen is the main protein of connective tissue in animals and the most abundant protein in mammals, making up about 25% to 35% of the whole-body protein content....
 Nerve function and healing by regulating myelin
Myelin

Myelin is an electrically-insulating dielectric material that forms a layer, the myelin sheath. Usually, myelin surrounds only the axon of a neuron....
 Prevent endometrial cancer
Endometrial cancer

Endometrial cancer refers to several types of cancer which arise from the endometrium, or lining of the uterus. Endometrial cancers are the most common gynecologic cancers in the United States, with over 35,000 women diagnosed each year in the U.S....
 by regulating effects of estrogen.
Calcitriol
Calcitriol

Calcitriol or 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol is the active form of vitamin D found in the body . It increases the absorption of calcium and phosphate from the gastrointestinal tract and kidneys and inhibits release of calcitonin....
 (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3) 		skin
Skin

The skin is the outer covering of the body, also known as the epidermis. It is the largest organ of the integumentary system made up of multiple layers of epithelial biological tissue, and guards the underlying muscles, bones, ligaments and organ s....
/proximal tubule
Proximal tubule

The proximal tubule is the portion of the Duct system of the nephron leading from Bowman's capsule to the loop of Henle....
 of kidneys 		direct Active form of vitamin D3 Increase absorption of calcium
Calcium

Calcium is the chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. It has an atomic mass of 40.078 amu. Calcium is a soft grey alkaline earth metal, and is the fifth most abundant element by mass in the earth's Crust ....
 and phosphate
Phosphate

A phosphate, an inorganic chemical, is a Salt of phosphoric acid. Inorganic phosphates are mining to obtain phosphorus for use in agriculture and industry....
 from gastrointestinal tract
Gastrointestinal tract

The digestive tract is the system of Organ s within multicellular animals that takes in food, digestion it to extract energy and nutrients, and expels the remaining waste....
 and kidneys inhibit release of PTH
Parathyroid hormone

Parathyroid hormone , or parathormone, is secreted by the parathyroid glands as a polypeptide containing 84 amino acids. It acts to increase the concentration of calcium in the blood, whereas calcitonin acts to decrease calcium concentration....
 |- | sterol 		Calcidiol
Calcidiol

Calcifediol , also known as calcidiol, 25-hydroxycholecalciferol, or 25-hydroxyvitamin D , is a prehormone which is produced by hydroxylation of vitamin D3 in the liver....
 (25-hydroxyvitamin D3) 		skin
Skin

The skin is the outer covering of the body, also known as the epidermis. It is the largest organ of the integumentary system made up of multiple layers of epithelial biological tissue, and guards the underlying muscles, bones, ligaments and organ s....
/proximal tubule
Proximal tubule

The proximal tubule is the portion of the Duct system of the nephron leading from Bowman's capsule to the loop of Henle....
 of kidneys 		direct Inactive form of Vitamin D3

|- | eicosanoid 		Prostaglandin
Prostaglandin

A prostaglandin is any member of a group of lipid compounds that are derived enzymatically from fatty acids and have important functions in the animal body....
s 		PG seminal vesicle
Seminal vesicle

The seminal vesicles are a pair of simple tubular glands posteroinferior to the urinary bladder of males....
 
>- | eicosanoid 		Leukotriene
Leukotriene

Leukotrienes are naturally produced eicosanoid lipid signaling, which may be responsible for the effects of an inflammatory response. Leukotrienes use both autocrine signalling and paracrine signalling to regulate the body's response....
s 		LT white blood cells
>- | eicosanoid 		Prostacyclin
Prostacyclin

Prostacyclin is a member of the family of lipid molecules known as eicosanoids.As a drug, it is also known as "epoprostenol". The terms are sometimes used interchangeably....
  		PGI2 endothelium
Endothelium

The endothelium is the thin layer of cell that line the interior surface of blood vessels, forming an interface between circulating blood in the lumen and the rest of the vessel wall....
 
>- | eicosanoid 		Thromboxane
Thromboxane

Thromboxane is a member of the family of lipids known as eicosanoids. The two major thromboxanes are thromboxane A2 and thromboxane B2.Thromboxane is named for its role in clot formation ....
  		TXA2 platelets
>- | 		Prolactin releasing hormone PRH hypothalamus
Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland ....
 		 Release prolactin
Prolactin

Prolactin or Luteotropic hormone is a peptide hormone primarily associated with lactation. In breastfeeding, the act of an infant suckling the nipple stimulates the production of prolactin, which fills the breast with milk via a process called lactogenesis, in preparation for the next feed....
 from anterior pituitary
Anterior pituitary

The anterior pituitary comprises the Anterior#Usage in human anatomy lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system. Unlike the posterior pituitary, the anterior lobe is genuinely glandular, hence the root adeno in its name....


|- | 		Lipotropin
Lipotropin

Lipotropin is a hormone produced by the cleavage of pro-opiomelanocortin . The anterior pituitary produces the pro-hormone POMC, which undergoes cleavage to Adrenocorticotropic hormone and ?-lipotropin ....
 		 PRH anterior pituitary
Anterior pituitary

The anterior pituitary comprises the Anterior#Usage in human anatomy lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system. Unlike the posterior pituitary, the anterior lobe is genuinely glandular, hence the root adeno in its name....
 		 Corticotrope
Corticotrope

Corticotropes are cell in the anterior pituitary which produce adrenocorticotrophic hormone and melanocyte stimulating hormone....
s 		lipolysis
Lipolysis

Lipolysis is the breakdown of fat stored in fat cells. During this process, free fatty acids are released into the bloodstream and circulate throughout the body....
 and steroidogenesis,
stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin
Melanin

Melanin is a class of compounds found in the plant, animal, and protista kingdom , where it serves predominantly as a pigment. The class of pigments are derivatives of the amino acid tyrosine....
 |- | 		Brain natriuretic peptide
Brain natriuretic peptide

Brain natriuretic peptide , now known as B-type natriuretic peptide or GC-B, is a 32 amino acid polypeptide secreted by the Ventricle of the heart in response to excessive stretching of heart muscle cells ....
 		 BNP heart
Heart

The heart is a muscle organ in all vertebrates responsible for pumping blood through the blood vessels by repeated, rhythmic contractions, or a similar structure in annelids, mollusks, and arthropods....
 		 Cardiac myocytes
Cardiac muscle

Cardiac muscle is a type of involuntary sarcomere muscle found in the walls of the heart, specifically the wikt:myocardium. Cardiac muscle cells are known as cardiac myocytes ....
  		(To a minor degree than ANP) reduce blood pressure
Blood pressure

Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels, and constitutes one of the principal vital signs. The pressure of the circulating blood decreases as it moves away from the heart through artery and capillary, and toward the heart through veins....
 by: reducing systemic
Systemic circulation

Systemic circulation is the portion of the cardiovascular system which carries oxygenated blood away from the heart, to the body, and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart....
 vascular resistance
Vascular resistance

Vascular resistance is a term used to define the resistance to flow that must be overcome to push blood through the circulatory system. The resistance offered by the peripheral circulation is known as the systemic vascular resistance , while the resistance offered by the vasculature of the lungs is known as the pulmonary vascular re...
, reducing blood water, sodium and fats |- | 		Neuropeptide Y
Neuropeptide Y

Neuropeptide Y is a 36 amino acid peptide neurotransmitter found in the brain and autonomic nervous system.NPY has been associated with a number of physiologic processes in the brain, including the regulation of energy balance, memory and learning, and epilepsy....
 		 NPY Stomach
Stomach

In most mammals, the stomach is a hollow muscular organ of the gastrointestinal tract involved in the second phase of digestion, following mastication....
 		 - | Histamine
Histamine

Histamine is a biogenic amine involved in local immune system as well as regulating physiological function in the gut and acting as a neurotransmitter....
 		 Stomach
Stomach

In most mammals, the stomach is a hollow muscular organ of the gastrointestinal tract involved in the second phase of digestion, following mastication....
 		 ECL cells stimulate gastric acid
Gastric acid

Gastric acid is one of the main secretions of the stomach, together with several enzymes and intrinsic factor. Chemically it is an acid solution with a pH of 1 to 2 in the stomach lumen , consisting mainly of hydrochloric acid , and large quantities of potassium chloride and sodium chloride ....
 secretion |- | 		Endothelin
Endothelin

Endothelins are proteins that constrict blood vessels and raise blood pressure. They are normally kept in balance by other mechanisms, but when they are over-expressed, they contribute to high blood pressure and heart disease....
 		 Stomach
Stomach

In most mammals, the stomach is a hollow muscular organ of the gastrointestinal tract involved in the second phase of digestion, following mastication....
 		 X cells Smooth muscle
Smooth muscle

Smooth muscle is a type of non-striated muscle, found within the tunica media layer of large and small arteries and veins, the urinary bladder, uterus, male and female reproductive tracts, gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, the ciliary muscle, and iris of the eye....
 contraction of stomach |- | 		Pancreatic polypeptide
Pancreatic polypeptide

Pancreatic polypeptide is a polypeptide secreted by PP cells in the endocrine pancreas predominantly in the head of the pancreas. It consists of 36 amino acids and has molecular weight about 4200 Dalton_%28unit%29....
 		 Pancreas
Pancreas

The pancreas is a gland Organ in the digestive system and endocrine system of vertebrates. It is both an endocrine gland , as well as an exocrine gland, secreting pancreatic juice containing Digestion enzymes that pass to the small intestine....
 		 PP cell
PP cell

PP cells are pancreatic polypeptide producing cell in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. They are very few in number and are polygonal in shape....
s 		- | Renin
Renin

Renin , also known as Angiotensinogenase, is a circulating enzyme that participates in the body's renin-angiotensin system that mediates extracellular volume , and arterial vasoconstriction....
 		 Kidney
Kidney

The kidneys are Organ that have numerous biological roles. Their primary role is to maintain the homeostasis balance of bodily fluids by filtering and secreting Metabolomics#Metabolitess and minerals from the blood and excreting them, along with water , as urine....
 		 Juxtaglomerular cell
Juxtaglomerular cell

In the kidney, the juxtaglomerular cells are cells that synthesize, store, and secrete the enzyme renin. They are specialized smooth muscle cells in the wall of the nephron that delivers blood to the glomerulus ....
s		 Activates the renin-angiotensin system
Renin-angiotensin system

The renin-angiotensin system or the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system is a hormone system that regulates blood pressure and water balance....
 by producing angiotensin I of angiotensinogen |- | 		Enkephalin
Enkephalin

An enkephalin is a pentapeptide involved in regulating pain and nociception in the body. The enkephalins are termed endogenous ligands, or specifically endorphins, as they are internally derived and bind to the body's opioid receptors....
 		 Kidney
Kidney

The kidneys are Organ that have numerous biological roles. Their primary role is to maintain the homeostasis balance of bodily fluids by filtering and secreting Metabolomics#Metabolitess and minerals from the blood and excreting them, along with water , as urine....
 		 Chromaffin cell
Chromaffin cell

Chromaffin cells are neuroendocrine cells found in the adrenal medulla of the adrenal gland and in other autonomic ganglion of the sympathetic nervous system....
s 		-


See also


External links