The term
Hoabinhian was first used by French archaeologists working in Northern Vietnam to describe
HoloceneThe Holocene is a geological epoch which began approximately 11 700 years ago . According to traditional geological thinking, the Holocene continues to the present. The Holocene is part of the Neogene and Quaternary periods. Its name comes from the Greek words and , meaning "entirely...
period archaeological
assemblageAn assemblage is an archaeological term meaning a group of different artifacts found in association with one another, that is, in the same context. According to Renfrew and Bahn An assemblage is an archaeological term meaning a group of different artifacts found in association with one another,...
s excavated from rock shelters. It has become a common term to describe
stoneIn geology, rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids.The Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock. In general rocks are of three types, namely, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic...
artifactAn artifact or artefact is any object made or modified by a human. In archaeology, an artifact is an object recovered by some archaeological endeavor, which may have a cultural interest. Examples include stone tools such as projectile points, pottery vessels, metal objects such as buttons or guns,...
assemblages in
Southeast AsiaManila
Bangkok
Ho Chi Minh City
Kuala Lumpur
Singapore
Yangon
Bandung
Hanoi
Surabaya
Taichung
Kaohsiung
Medan|-|}...
that contain flaked,
cobbleCobble may refer to:* A particular size of rock, larger than gravel* Cobblestone, partially-rounded rocks used for road paving* Hammerstone, a prehistoric stone tool* Tyringham Cobble, a nature reserve in Tyringham, Massachusetts, U.S....
artifacts, dated to circa 10,000–2,000 BCE. The term was originally used to refer to a specific ethnic group, restricted to a limited time period with a distinctive
subsistence economyA subsistence economy is an economy in which a group attempts to produce no more output per period than they must consume in that period in order to survive, but do not attempt to accumulate wealth or to transfer productivity from one period to the next. In such a system, a concept of wealth may...
and
technologyTechnology is a broad concept that deals with human as well as other animal species' usage and knowledge of tools and crafts, and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt to its environment...
.
The term
Hoabinhian was first used by French archaeologists working in Northern Vietnam to describe
HoloceneThe Holocene is a geological epoch which began approximately 11 700 years ago . According to traditional geological thinking, the Holocene continues to the present. The Holocene is part of the Neogene and Quaternary periods. Its name comes from the Greek words and , meaning "entirely...
period archaeological
assemblageAn assemblage is an archaeological term meaning a group of different artifacts found in association with one another, that is, in the same context. According to Renfrew and Bahn An assemblage is an archaeological term meaning a group of different artifacts found in association with one another,...
s excavated from rock shelters. It has become a common term to describe
stoneIn geology, rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids.The Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock. In general rocks are of three types, namely, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic...
artifactAn artifact or artefact is any object made or modified by a human. In archaeology, an artifact is an object recovered by some archaeological endeavor, which may have a cultural interest. Examples include stone tools such as projectile points, pottery vessels, metal objects such as buttons or guns,...
assemblages in
Southeast AsiaManila
Bangkok
Ho Chi Minh City
Kuala Lumpur
Singapore
Yangon
Bandung
Hanoi
Surabaya
Taichung
Kaohsiung
Medan|-|}...
that contain flaked,
cobbleCobble may refer to:* A particular size of rock, larger than gravel* Cobblestone, partially-rounded rocks used for road paving* Hammerstone, a prehistoric stone tool* Tyringham Cobble, a nature reserve in Tyringham, Massachusetts, U.S....
artifacts, dated to circa 10,000–2,000 BCE. The term was originally used to refer to a specific ethnic group, restricted to a limited time period with a distinctive
subsistence economyA subsistence economy is an economy in which a group attempts to produce no more output per period than they must consume in that period in order to survive, but do not attempt to accumulate wealth or to transfer productivity from one period to the next. In such a system, a concept of wealth may...
and
technologyTechnology is a broad concept that deals with human as well as other animal species' usage and knowledge of tools and crafts, and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt to its environment...
. More recent work (e.g. Shoocongdej 2000) uses the term to refer to
artifactAn artifact or artefact is any object made or modified by a human. In archaeology, an artifact is an object recovered by some archaeological endeavor, which may have a cultural interest. Examples include stone tools such as projectile points, pottery vessels, metal objects such as buttons or guns,...
s and assemblages with certain formal characteristics.
Bacsonian is often regarded as a variation of the Hoabinhian industry characterized by a higher frequency of edge-grounded cobble artifacts compared to earlier Hoabinhian artifacts, dated to circa 8000–4000 BCE.
History of definitions
In 1927
Madeleine ColaniMadeleine Colani is a female French archaeologist, born in Strasbourg.In 1899, she arrived to Vietnam to teach, in 1914 returned to France to earned doctorate. From 1920 - 1927, she worked for indochinese geology bureau. She contributed much for vietnamese archaeology, especially Sa Huỳnh Culture...
published some details of her nine excavations on northern Vietnamese province of
Hòa BìnhHòa Bình is a mountainous province of Vietnam, located in the nation's northwestern region. It borders Phu Tho Province and Son La Province to the northwest, Ha Noi city to the north and northeast, Ha Nam Province to the southeast, Ninh Binh Province to the south and Thanh Hoa Province to the south...
. As a result of her work the First Congress of Prehistorians of the Far East in 1932 agreed to define the Hoabinhian as
- a culture composed of implements that are in general flaked with somewhat varied types of primitive workmanship. It is characterised by tools often worked only on one face, by hammerstones, by implements of sub-triangular section, by discs, short axes and almond shaped artefacts, with an appreciable number of bone
Bones are rigid organs that form part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates. They function to move, support, and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells and store minerals. Bone tissue is a type of dense connective tissue...
tools (Matthews 1966).
Despite the general terms of the definition, Colani's Hoabinhian is an elaborate
typologyIn archaeology a typology is the result of the classification of things according to their characteristics. The products of the classification, i.e. the classes are also called types. Most archaeological typologies organize artifacts into types, but typologies of houses or roads belonging to a...
as indicated by the 82 artefacts from Sao Dong that Colani classified into 28
typeType may refer to:In philosophy:*A type is a category of being*Type-token distinctionIn mathematics:*Type *Type theory, basis for the study of type systems*Type or Arity, the number of operands a function takes...
s (Matthews 1966). The original typology is so complicated that most Hoabinhian sites are identified simply by the presence of
sumatralithA sumatralith is an oval to rectangular shaped stone artefact made by unifacially flaking around the circumference of a cobble. It is often used to infer the Hoabinhian character of a lithic assemblage.- References :...
s (White & Gorman 1979). The chronology of Hoabinhian artifacts was assumed to be Holocene because of the extant fauna found in the assemblages and the absence of extinct fauna by Colani and others working before the availability of
radiocarbon datingRadiocarbon dating, or carbon dating, is a radiometric dating method that uses the naturally occurring radioisotope carbon-14 to determine the age of carbonaceous materials up to about 60,000 years. Raw, i.e. uncalibrated, radiocarbon ages are usually reported in radiocarbon years "Before Present"...
methods in the 1950s.
Problems with Colani's typology were exposed by Matthews (1964) who analysed metric and technological attributes of unifacially flaked cobble artifacts from Hoabinhian levels at Sai Yok Rockshelter,
Kanchanaburi ProvinceKanchanaburi is the largest of the central provinces of Thailand. Neighboring provinces are Tak, Uthai Thani, Suphan Buri, Nakhon Pathom and Ratchaburi...
, west-central
ThailandThe Kingdom of Thailand is an independent country that lies in the heart of Southeast Asia.It is bordered to the north by Laos and Burma, to the east by Laos and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the west by the Andaman Sea and Burma...
. His aim was to determine if Hoabinhian artefact types described by Colani could be defined as clusters of constantly recurring attributes such as
lengthLength is the long dimension of any object. Not to be confused with Depth which is the property of the object that appears to go away from the observer. The length of a thing is the distance between its ends, its linear extent as measured from end to end...
, width,
thicknessThickness may refer to:* Thickness in graph theory* Thickness of layers in Geology* Thickness The difference in height between two atmospheric pressure levels* Thickness planer a woodworking machine* Optical thickness in optics...
,
massIn physics, mass commonly refers to any of three properties of matter, which have been shown experimentally to be equivalent: inertial mass, active gravitational mass and passive gravitational mass...
, length-width
ratioA ratio is an expression that compares quantities relative to each other. The most common examples involve two quantities, but any number of quantities can be compared. Ratios are represented mathematically by separating each quantity with a colon – for example, the ratio 2:3, which is read as the...
and
cortexIn lithic analysis in archaeology the cortex is the outer layer of rock formed on the exterior of raw materials by chemical and mechanical weathering processes. It is often recorded on the dorsal surface of flakes using a three class system: primary , secondary , and tertiary...
amount and distribution. Matthews found that Hoabinhian types did not really exist and instead Hoabinhian artifacts reflect a continuous range of shapes and sizes.
Following his archaeological excavation and surveys in
Mae Hong Son ProvinceMae Hong Son is one of the northern provinces of Thailand, and at the same time the westernmost. Neighboring provinces are Shan State of Myanmar, Chiang Mai and Tak. To the west it borders Kayin State and Kayah State of Myanmar again...
, northwest Thailand,
Chester GormanChester F. Gorman was an American anthropologist and archaeologist.Born in Oakland, California, he grew up on his parent's dairy farm in Elk Grove. He studied at the Sacramento State University and the University of Hawaii, where he also got his MA and his PhD.Chester Gorman worked mostly in...
(1970) proposed a more detailed definition as follows
- A generally unifacial flake
Flake or Flakes may refer to:In food preparation:* Fish flake, a platform for drying cod* Flake , an Australian term for edible flesh of one of several species of shark* Flake , a chocolate barIn science and technology:...
d tool tradition made primarily on water rounded pebbleA pebble is a clast of rock with a particle size of 4 to 64 millimeters based on the Krumbein phi scale of sedimentology. It is generally considered to be larger than gravel and smaller than cobble. A rock made predominantly of pebbles is termed a conglomerate...
s and large flakes detached from these pebbles
- Core
In archaeology, a lithic core is a distinctive artifact that results from the practice of lithic reduction. In this sense, a core is the scarred nucleus resulting from the detachment of one or more flakes from a lump of source material or tool stone, usually by using a hard hammer percussor such...
tools ("SumatralithA sumatralith is an oval to rectangular shaped stone artefact made by unifacially flaking around the circumference of a cobble. It is often used to infer the Hoabinhian character of a lithic assemblage.- References :...
s") made by complete flaking on one side of a pebble and grinding stones also made on rounded pebbles, usually in association with iron oxideIron oxides are chemical compounds composed of iron and oxygen. Altogether, there are sixteen known iron oxides and oxyhydroxides.-Oxides:* FeO, iron oxide, * Fe3O4, iron oxide,...
- A high incidence of utilized flakes (identified from edge-damage characteristics)
- Fairly similar assemblages of food
Food is any substance, usually composed of carbohydrates, fats, proteins and water, that can be eaten or drunk by an animal, including humans, for nutrition or pleasure. Items considered food may be sourced from plants, animals or other categories such as fungus or fermented products like alcohol...
remains including remains of extant shellfishShellfish is a culinary and fisheries term for exoskeleton-bearing aquatic invertebrates used as food, including various species of molluscs, crustaceans, and echinoderms. Although most kinds of shellfish are harvested from saltwater environments, some kinds are found only in freshwater...
, fishA fish is any aquatic vertebrate animal that is typically ectothermic , covered with scales, and equipped with two sets of paired fins and several unpaired fins...
, and small-medium-sized mammalMammals are a class of vertebrate animals whose females are characterized by the possession of mammary glands while both males and females are characterized by sweat glands, hair, three middle ear bones used in hearing, and a neocortex region in the brain.Mammals are divided into three main...
s
- A cultural and ecological orientation to the use of rockshelters generally occurring near fresh water streams
In computer networking, STREAMS is the native framework in Unix System V for implementing character devices.STREAMS was designed as a modular architecture for implementing full-duplex I/O between kernel or user space processes and device drivers. Its most frequent uses have been in developing...
in an upland karstKilometer-square Area Radio Synthesis Telescope is a Chinese telescope project to which FAST is a forerunner. KARST is a set of large spherical reflectors on karst landforms, which are bowlshaped limestone sinkholes named after a Yugoslavian geologist Karst. It will consist of about 30 individual...
ic topography (though Hoabinhian shell middens do indicate at least one other ecological orientation)
- Edge-grinding and cord-marked ceramic
Pottery is the ceramic ware made by potters. Major types of pottery include earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain. The places where such wares are made are called potteries. Pottery is one of the oldest human technologies and art-forms, and remains a major industry today...
s occurring (though perhaps as intrusive elements), individually or together, in the upper layers of Hoabinhian deposits
Gorman's work included a number of radiocarbon dates that confirmed the Holocene age of the Hoabinhian.
The term was redefined in 1994 by archaeologists attending a conference held in
HanoiHanoi , estimated population 6.232.940 , is the capital and second-largest city of Vietnam. From 1010 until 1802, with a few brief interruptions, it was the political centre of an independent Vietnam. It was eclipsed by Huế during the Nguyen Dynasty as the capital of Vietnam, but Hanoi served as...
. At this conference Vietnamese archaeologists presented evidence of Hoabinhian artifacts dating to 17,000 years before the present. A vote was held where is was agreed that
http://www.geocities.com/thai_archaeology/seasia/04/comment1.html
- The concept of the Hoabinhian should be kept
- The best concept for "Hoabinhian" was an industry
An archaeological industry is the name given to a consistent range of assemblages connected with a single product, such as the Langdale axe industry...
rather than a cultureCulture is a term that has different meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions...
or techno-complex
- The chronology of the Hoabinhian industry dates is from "late-to-terminal Pleistocene
The Pleistocene is the epoch from 2.588 million to 12 000 years BP covering the world's recent period of repeated glaciations. The name pleistocene is derived from the Greek and ....
to early-to-mid Holocene"
- The term "Sumatralith" should be retained
- The Hoabinhian Industry should be referred to as a "cobble" rather that a "pebble" tool industry
- The Hoabinhian should not be referred to as a "Mesolithic
The Mesolithic or "Middle Stone Age" was a period in the development of human technology in between the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age and the Neolithic or New Stone Age. The term was introduced by John Lubbock in his work Pre-historic Times, published in 1865. The term was, however, not much used...
" phenomenon
Geographical distribution
Since the term was first used to describe assemblages from sites in Vietnam, many sites throughout mainland and island
Southeast AsiaManila
Bangkok
Ho Chi Minh City
Kuala Lumpur
Singapore
Yangon
Bandung
Hanoi
Surabaya
Taichung
Kaohsiung
Medan|-|}...
have also been described as having Hoabinhian components. The apparent concentration of more than 120 Hoabinhian sites in Vietnam reflects intense research activities in this area rather the location of a centre of the prehistoric Hoabinhian activity. Archaeological sites in
SumatraSumatra is an island in western Indonesia, westernmost of the Sunda Islands. It is the largest island entirely in Indonesia , and the sixth largest island in the world .-Etymology:Sumatra was known in ancient times by the Sanskrit...
, Thailand,
LaosLaos , officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma and People's Republic of China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the south and Thailand to the west...
,
MyanmarBurma, officially the Union of Myanmar, is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia or Indochina. The country is bordered by China on the northeast, Laos on the east, Thailand on the southeast, Bangladesh on the west, India on the northwest and the Bay of Bengal to the...
and
CambodiaThe Kingdom of Cambodia , formerly known as Kampuchea , is a country in South East Asia with a population of over 14 million people. The kingdom's capital and largest city is Phnom Penh...
have been identified as Hoabinhian, although the quality and quantity of descriptions vary and the relative significance of the Hoabinhian component at these sites can be difficult to determine.
Beyond this core area some archaeologists argue that there are isolated inventories of stone artifacts displaying Hoabinhian elements in
NepalNepal , officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked country in South Asia and the world's youngest republic. It is bordered to the north by the People's Republic of China, and to the south, east, and west by the Republic of India...
, South
ChinaChina is a cultural region, an ancient civilization, and, depending on perspective, a national or multinational entity extending over a large area in East Asia....
,
TaiwanTaiwan , also known as Formosa , is the largest island of the Republic of China in East Asia. Taiwan is located east of the Taiwan Strait, off the southeastern coast of mainland China...
and
AustraliaAustralia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the continental mainland , the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans...
(Moser 2001).
The Hoabinhian and plant domestication
Gorman (1971) claimed that
Spirit CaveThe Spirit Cave is an archaeologic site in Pang Mapha district, Mae Hong Son Province, Northwestern Thailand. It was occupied from about 9000 until 5500 BC by Hoabinhian hunters and gatherers.- Location :...
included remains of
Prunus (
almondThe Almond is a species of tree native to the Middle East. Almond is also the name of the edible and widely cultivated nut of this tree...
),
Terminalia,
Areca (
betelThe Betel is the leaf of a vine belonging to the Piperaceae family, which includes pepper and Kava. It is valued both as a mild stimulant and for its medicinal properties....
),
Vicia (broadbean) or
Phaseolus,
Pisum (
peaA pea is most commonly the small spherical seed or the seed-pod of the legume Pisum sativum. Each pod contains several peas. Although it is botanically a fruit, it is treated as a vegetable in cooking...
) or
Raphia Lagenaria (bottle gourd),
Trapa (Chinese water
chestnutChestnut is a genus of eight or nine species of deciduous trees and shrubs in the beech family Fagaceae, native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. The name also refers to the edible nuts they produce.-Species:The Chestnut belongs to the same Fagaceae family as the Oak and Beech...
),
Piper (
pepper-First names:* Piper Gilles, an American figure skater* Piper Laurie, an American actress, born Rosetta Jacobs* Piper Perabo, an American movie actress who starred in Coyote Ugly-Surnames:* Adrian Piper* Ailsa Piper, Australian TV actress* Billie Piper...
),
Madhuca (
butternutButternut has multiple meanings:*Butternut squash, an edible winter squash.*Butternut , a type of walnut tree native to North America.*Caryocar nuciferum, known as "butternut", a type of nut tree native to South America...
),
Canarium,
Aleurites (candle nut), and
Cucumis (a
cucumberThe cucumber is a widely cultivated plant in the gourd family Cucurbitaceae, which includes squash, and in the same genus as the muskmelon.- Botany :...
type) in layers dating to c. 9800-8500 BP. None of the recovered specimens differed from their wild
phenotypeA phenotype is any observable characteristic or trait of an organism: such as its morphology, development, biochemical or physiological properties, or behavior. Phenotypes result from the expression of an organism's genes as well as the influence of environmental factors and possible interactions...
s. He suggested that these may have been used as foods,
condimentA condiment is a relish, sauce, or seasoning added to food to impart a particular flavour or to complement the dish. Often pungent in flavour and therefore added in fairly small quantities, popular condiments include salt, pepper, ketchup, mustard, olive oil, vinegar and sugar.Usually applied by...
s,
stimulantStimulants, also sometimes called psychostimulants, are psychoactive drugs which induce temporary improvements in either mental or physical function or both. Examples of these kinds of effects may include enhanced alertness, wakefulness, and locomotion, among others...
s, for lighting and that the
leguminousIn botanical writing legume is a plant in the family Fabaceae , or a fruit of these specific plants. A'legume' fruit is a simple dry fruit that develops from a simple carpel and usually dehisces on two sides. A common name for this type of fruit is a pod, although "pod" is also applied to a few...
plants in particular 'point to a very early use of
domesticatedDomestication or taming is the process whereby a population of animals or plants, through a process of selection, becomes accustomed to human provision and control. A defining characteristic of domestication is artificial selection by humans...
plants' (Gorman 1969:672). He later wrote (1971:311) that 'Whether they are definitely early
cultigenA cultigen is a plant that has been deliberately altered or selected by humans; it is the result of artificial selection...
s (see Yen n.d.:12) remains to be established... What is important, and what we can say definitely, is that the remains indicate the early, quite sophisticated use of particular species which are still culturally important in Southeast Asia.'
In 1972 W.G. Solheim, as the director of the project of which Spirit Cave was part, published an article in
Scientific AmericanScientific American is a popular science magazine published since August 28, 1845, which according to the magazine makes it the oldest continuously published magazine in the United States...
discussing the finds from Spirit Cave. While Solheim noted that the specimens may 'merely be wild species gathered from the surrounding countryside', he claimed that the inhabitants at Spirit Cave had 'an advanced knowledge of
horticultureHorticulture is the industry and science of plant cultivation. Some would say that horticulture is the process of preparing soil for the planting of seeds, tubers, or cuttings. Horticulturists work and conduct research in the disciplines of plant propagation and cultivation, crop production, plant...
'. Solheim's
chronologicalChronology is a chronicle or arrangement of events in their order of occurrence in time, such as a timeline. It is also "the determination of the actual temporal sequence of past events".Chronology is part of periodization...
chart suggests that 'incipient
agricultureAgriculture is the production of food and goods through farming and forestry. Agriculture was the key development that led to the rise of human civilization, with the husbandry of domesticated animals and plants creating food surpluses that enabled the development of more densely populated and...
' began at about 20,000 B.C. in southeast Asia. He also suggests that ceramic technology was invented at 13,000 B.C. although Spirit Cave does not have ceramics until after 6800 B.C.
Although Solheim concludes that his reconstruction is 'largely hypothetical', his
overstatementHyperbole is a figure of speech in which statements are exaggerated. It may be used to evoke strong feelings or to create a strong impression, but is not meant to be taken literally....
of the results of Gorman's excavation has led to inflated claims of Hoabinhian agriculture. These claims have detracted from the significance of Spirit Cave as a site with well-preserved evidence of human subsistence and palaeoenvironmental conditions during the Hoabinhian.
Literature
- Colani M. (1927) L'âge de la pierre dans la province de Hoa Binh. Mémoires du Service Géologique de l'Indochine 13
- Flannery, KV. (1973) The origins of agriculture. Annual Review of Anthropology 2: 271-310
- Gorman C. (1969) Hoabinhian: A pebble tool complex with early plant associations in Southeast Asia. Science 163: 671-3
- Gorman C. (1970) Excavations at Spirit Cave, North Thailand: Some interim interpretations. Asian Perspectives 13: 79-107
- Gorman C. (1971) The Hoabinhian and After: Subsistence Patterns in Southeast Asia during the Late Pleistocene and Early Recent Periods. World Archaeology 2: 300-20
- Matthews JM. (1964) The Hoabinhian in Southeast Asia and elsewhere. PhD thesis. Australian National University, Canberra
- Matthews JM. (1966) A Review of the 'Hoabinhian' in Indo-China. Asian Perspectives 9: 86-95
- Moser, J. (2001) Hoabinhian: Geographie und Chronologie eines steinzeitlichen Technocomplexes in Südostasien Köln, Lindensoft.
- Phukhachon S. (1988) Archaeological research of the Hoabinhian culture or technocomplex and its comparison with ethnoarchaeology of the Phi Tong Luang, a hunter-gatherer group of Thailand. Tübingen: Verlag Archaeologica Venatoria: Institut fur Urgeschichte der Universitat Tübingen.
- Shoocongdej R. (2000) Forager Mobility Organization in Seasonal Tropical Environments of Western Thailand. World Archaeology 32: 14-40.
- Solheim, W.G. (1972) An earlier agricultural revolution. Scientific American 226: 34-41
- Van Tan H. (1994) The Hoabinhian in Southeast Asia: Culture, cultures or technocomplex? Vietnam Social Sciences 5: 3-8
- Van Tan H. (1997) The Hoabinhian and before. Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association (Chiang Mai Papers, Volume 3) 16: 35-41
- White JC, Gorman C. (2004) Patterns in "amorphous" industries: The Hoabinhian viewed through a lithic reduction sequence. IN Paz, V. (ed) Southeast Asian archaeology: Wilhelm G. Solheim II Festschrift University of the Philippines Press, Quezon City. pp. 411-441.