History of anatomy in the 19th century
Encyclopedia
The 19th century saw anatomists largely finalise and systematise the descriptive human anatomy
of the previous century. The discipline also progressed to establish growing sources of knowledge in histology
and developmental biology
, not only of humans but also of animal
s.
(1791-1796), then in Latin
(1794-1800). There was a second German edition in 1800-1801 and a further eight-volume edition (1841-1844) revised and with additional material by Th.L.W. Bischoff, Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle
, E.H. Huschke, Theile, G.G. Valentin, Vogel
, and Rudolph Wagner. The arrangement of the edition is:
This, which is probably the most accurate as it is the most elaborate system of anatomical knowledge up to the date of its publication in 1844, was translated into French
by Jourdan, and published in 1846 under the name of Encyclopedie anatomique. The eighth volume was translated into English
in the year 1847.
is a monument of his scientific ability and scholarship. His Anatomie Descriptive is distinguished by clear and natural arrangement, precise and accurate description, and the general ingenuity with which the subject is treated. The physiological
observations are in general correct, often novel, and always highly interesting. Bichat died during the preparation of the third volume and the work was completed by P.J. Roux and M.F.R. Buisson.
cadaver
s for use in medical colleges, particularly for anatomy demonstrations. Before the 19th century, most were bodies of executed criminals
or, more rarely, corpses donated by relatives. However, as demand began to outstrip supply, shortage of corpses often discouraged medical schools from scrutinising their suppliers too closely. Criminal elements were attracted to the lucrative trade and body snatchers (known also as 'resurrectionists') resorted to grave robbing
to supply the market. The scale of the problem can be seen from the 1831 confessions of the London Burkers
, who admitted to stealing 500-1000 bodies for anatomists, over a twelve year career. They received 8-10 guineas for each cadaver accepted.
The practices of the body snatchers caused widespread fear and revulsion as the indignities and humiliation of exhumation were compounded by the horror of being the subject of dissection. The criminal temptations ultimately led to the 1827-1828 West Port murders
in Edinburgh
, UK
, where likely candidates were killed and sold for cash.
In the UK, the murders led to the passing of the Anatomy Act 1832
that finally provided for an adequate and legitimate supply of corpses.
Human anatomy
Human anatomy is primarily the scientific study of the morphology of the human body. Anatomy is subdivided into gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy is the study of anatomical structures that can be seen by the naked eye...
of the previous century. The discipline also progressed to establish growing sources of knowledge in histology
Histology
Histology is the study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals. It is performed by examining cells and tissues commonly by sectioning and staining; followed by examination under a light microscope or electron microscope...
and developmental biology
Developmental biology
Developmental biology is the study of the process by which organisms grow and develop. Modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of cell growth, differentiation and "morphogenesis", which is the process that gives rise to tissues, organs and anatomy.- Related fields of study...
, not only of humans but also of animal
Animal
Animals are a major group of multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their life. Most animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and...
s.
Anatomical science
Though R.B. Sabatier developed a recognisably modern system it was soon superseded by subsequent work.Sommerring
Samuel Thomas Sommerring originally published a clear, accurate and precise system in GermanGerman language
German is a West Germanic language, related to and classified alongside English and Dutch. With an estimated 90 – 98 million native speakers, German is one of the world's major languages and is the most widely-spoken first language in the European Union....
(1791-1796), then in Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
(1794-1800). There was a second German edition in 1800-1801 and a further eight-volume edition (1841-1844) revised and with additional material by Th.L.W. Bischoff, Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle
Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle
Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle was a German physician, pathologist and anatomist. He is credited with the discovery of the loop of Henle in the kidney. His essay "On Miasma and Contagia" was an early argument for the germ theory of disease...
, E.H. Huschke, Theile, G.G. Valentin, Vogel
Vogel
Vogel is the German and Dutch word for "bird" and is a common surname originating in German-speaking countries. Equivalent surnames are Bird or Byrd in English or L'Oiseau in French...
, and Rudolph Wagner. The arrangement of the edition is:
- Vol. 1: Wagner details the life, correspondence and literary writings of Sommerring;
- Vol. 2: Anatomy of the boneBoneBones are rigid organs that constitute part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates. They support, and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells and store minerals. Bone tissue is a type of dense connective tissue...
s and ligaments; - Vol. 3: Anatomy of the muscleMuscleMuscle is a contractile tissue of animals and is derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells. Muscle cells contain contractile filaments that move past each other and change the size of the cell. They are classified as skeletal, cardiac, or smooth muscles. Their function is to...
s and the vascular system by Theile; - Vol. 4: microscopicMicroscopeA microscope is an instrument used to see objects that are too small for the naked eye. The science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called microscopy...
anatomy of the nervous systemNervous systemThe nervous system is an organ system containing a network of specialized cells called neurons that coordinate the actions of an animal and transmit signals between different parts of its body. In most animals the nervous system consists of two parts, central and peripheral. The central nervous...
by Valentin, including the brainBrainThe brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals—only a few primitive invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, sea squirts and starfishes do not have one. It is located in the head, usually close to primary sensory apparatus such as vision, hearing,...
, the spinal cordSpinal cordThe spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue and support cells that extends from the brain . The brain and spinal cord together make up the central nervous system...
, and the ganglia; - Vol. 5: Anatomy of the organOrgan (anatomy)In biology, an organ is a collection of tissues joined in structural unit to serve a common function. Usually there is a main tissue and sporadic tissues . The main tissue is the one that is unique for the specific organ. For example, main tissue in the heart is the myocardium, while sporadic are...
s by Huschke - this part of the work had been left incomplete by Sommerring but he had left extensive material to work on; - Vol. 6: An entire and complete system of general anatomy, deduced from personal observation by Henle other careful observers, the materials being in general new, and in all instances confirmed and rectified;
- Vol. 7: Developmental biologyDevelopmental biologyDevelopmental biology is the study of the process by which organisms grow and develop. Modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of cell growth, differentiation and "morphogenesis", which is the process that gives rise to tissues, organs and anatomy.- Related fields of study...
of mammalMammalMammals are members of a class of air-breathing vertebrate animals characterised by the possession of endothermy, hair, three middle ear bones, and mammary glands functional in mothers with young...
s and humanHumanHumans are the only living species in the Homo genus...
s, by Bischoff; - Vol. 8: Pathological anatomy of the human body, by Vogel, but only the generalities of the subject.
This, which is probably the most accurate as it is the most elaborate system of anatomical knowledge up to the date of its publication in 1844, was translated into French
French language
French is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...
by Jourdan, and published in 1846 under the name of Encyclopedie anatomique. The eighth volume was translated into English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
in the year 1847.
Bichat
The Anatomie Generale of Marie François Xavier BichatMarie François Xavier Bichat
Marie François Xavier Bichat , French anatomist and physiologist, was born at Thoirette .Bichat is best remembered as the father of modern histology and pathology. Despite the fact that he worked without a microscope he was able to advance greatly the understanding of the human body...
is a monument of his scientific ability and scholarship. His Anatomie Descriptive is distinguished by clear and natural arrangement, precise and accurate description, and the general ingenuity with which the subject is treated. The physiological
Physiology
Physiology is the science of the function of living systems. This includes how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and bio-molecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. The highest honor awarded in physiology is the Nobel Prize in Physiology or...
observations are in general correct, often novel, and always highly interesting. Bichat died during the preparation of the third volume and the work was completed by P.J. Roux and M.F.R. Buisson.
Social and political issues
The growth of medical science and medical practice created an increased demand for humanHuman
Humans are the only living species in the Homo genus...
cadaver
Cadaver
A cadaver is a dead human body.Cadaver may also refer to:* Cadaver tomb, tomb featuring an effigy in the form of a decomposing body* Cadaver , a video game* cadaver A command-line WebDAV client for Unix....
s for use in medical colleges, particularly for anatomy demonstrations. Before the 19th century, most were bodies of executed criminals
Capital punishment
Capital punishment, the death penalty, or execution is the sentence of death upon a person by the state as a punishment for an offence. Crimes that can result in a death penalty are known as capital crimes or capital offences. The term capital originates from the Latin capitalis, literally...
or, more rarely, corpses donated by relatives. However, as demand began to outstrip supply, shortage of corpses often discouraged medical schools from scrutinising their suppliers too closely. Criminal elements were attracted to the lucrative trade and body snatchers (known also as 'resurrectionists') resorted to grave robbing
Grave robbing
Grave robbery, grave robbing, or tomb raiding is the act of uncovering a tomb or crypt to steal artifacts or personal effects. Someone who engages in this act is a grave robber or tomb raider...
to supply the market. The scale of the problem can be seen from the 1831 confessions of the London Burkers
London Burkers
The London Burkers were a group of body snatchers, operating in London, who apparently modelled their activities on those of the notorious Burke and Hare...
, who admitted to stealing 500-1000 bodies for anatomists, over a twelve year career. They received 8-10 guineas for each cadaver accepted.
The practices of the body snatchers caused widespread fear and revulsion as the indignities and humiliation of exhumation were compounded by the horror of being the subject of dissection. The criminal temptations ultimately led to the 1827-1828 West Port murders
West Port murders
The Burke and Hare murders were serial murders perpetrated in Edinburgh, Scotland, from November 1827 to October 31, 1828. The killings were attributed to Irish immigrants William Burke and William Hare, who sold the corpses of their 17 victims to provide material for dissection...
in Edinburgh
Edinburgh
Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland, the second largest city in Scotland, and the eighth most populous in the United Kingdom. The City of Edinburgh Council governs one of Scotland's 32 local government council areas. The council area includes urban Edinburgh and a rural area...
, UK
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
, where likely candidates were killed and sold for cash.
In the UK, the murders led to the passing of the Anatomy Act 1832
Anatomy Act 1832
The Anatomy Act 1832 was a United Kingdom Act of Parliament that gave freer license to doctors, teachers of anatomy, and bona fide medical students to dissect donated bodies...
that finally provided for an adequate and legitimate supply of corpses.