Early history
In geological terms, Iceland is a young island. It started to form
about 20 million years agoThe Miocene is a geological epoch of the Neogene period and extends from about 23.03 to 5.33 million years before the present . The Miocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell. Its name comes from the Greek words and and means "less recent" because it has 18% fewer modern sea invertebrates than the...
from a series of
volcanic eruptions3. Conduit
4. Base
5. Sill
6. Dike
7. Layers of ash emitted by the volcano
8. Flank| 9. Layers of lava emitted by the volcano
10. Throat
11. Parasitic cone
12. Lava flow
13. Vent
14. Crater
15...
on the
Mid-Atlantic RidgeThe Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a mid-ocean ridge, a divergent tectonic plate boundary located along the floor of the Atlantic Ocean, and the longest mountain range in the world. It separates the Eurasian Plate and North American Plate in the North Atlantic, and the African Plate from the South American...
. The
Iceland hotspotThe Iceland hotspot is a hotspot which is partly responsible for the high volcanic activity which has formed the island of Iceland.-Description:...
is likely partly responsible for the island's creation and continued existence.
Iceland remained for a long time one of the world's last larger islands uninhabited by
humanHumans are bipedal primates belonging to the species Homo sapiens in Hominidae, the great ape family. They are the only surviving member of the genus Homo. Humans have a highly developed brain, capable of abstract reasoning, language, introspection, and problem solving...
s. It has been suggested that the land called
ThuleThule is, in classical literature, a place, usually an island...
by the Greek merchant
PytheasPytheas of Massilia , 4th century BC, was a Greek geographer and explorer from the Greek colony, Massilia . He made a voyage of exploration to northwestern Europe at about 325 BC. He travelled around and visited a considerable part of Great Britain. Some of his observations may refer to...
was actually Iceland, although it seems highly unlikely considering Pytheas' description of it as an agricultural country with plenty of milk, honey, and fruit. The exact date that humans first reached the island is uncertain.
Ancient Roman coinsThe Roman currency during most of the Roman Republic and the western half of the Roman Empire consisted of coins including the aureus , the denarius , the sestertius , the dupondius , and the as...
dating to the
3rd centuryThe 3rd century is the period from 201 to 300 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian/Common Era.In this century, the Roman Empire sees a crisis, marking the beginning of Late Antiquity. In Persia, the Parthian Empire is succeeded by the Sassanid Empire.In India, the Kushan Empire...
have been found in Iceland, but it is unknown whether they were brought there at that time, or came later with
VikingA Viking is one of the Norse explorers, warriors, merchants, and pirates who raided and colonized wide areas of Europe from the late eighth to the early eleventh century. These Norsemen used their famed longships to travel as far east as Constantinople and the Volga River in Russia, and as far...
settlers, having circulated as currency already for centuries.
There is some literary evidence that
Irish monksThe Papar were, according to early Icelandic historical sources, a group of Irish or Scottish monks resident in parts of Iceland at the time of the arrival of the Norsemen...
had settled in Iceland before the arrival of the Norse. However, there is no archaeological evidence to support such settlement. The 12th-century scholar
Ari ÞorgilssonAri Þorgilsson was Iceland's most prominent medieval chronicler. He is the author of Íslendingabók, which details the histories of the various families who settled Iceland...
wrote in his book,
ÍslendingabókÍslendingabók, Libellus Islandorum or The Book of Icelanders is an historical work dealing with early Icelandic history. The author was an Icelandic priest, Ari Þorgilsson, working in the early 12th century. The work originally existed in two different versions but only the younger one has come...
, that small bells, corresponding to those used by Irish monks, were found by the settlers. No such artifacts have been discovered by
archaeologistsArchaeology or archeology is the science that studies human cultures through the recovery, documentation, analysis, and interpretation of material culture and environmental data, including architecture, artifacts, biofacts, and landscapes...
, however. Some Icelanders claimed descent from Kjarvalr Írakonungr at the time of the
LandnámabókLandnámabók is a medieval Icelandic manuscript describing in considerable detail the settlement of Iceland by the Norse in the 9th and 10th century A.D. It begins with Ingólfur Arnarson's original settlement in Reykjavík and his claims on land to the north, west, east and south...
's creation.
Discovery
According to
LandnámabókLandnámabók is a medieval Icelandic manuscript describing in considerable detail the settlement of Iceland by the Norse in the 9th and 10th century A.D. It begins with Ingólfur Arnarson's original settlement in Reykjavík and his claims on land to the north, west, east and south...
, Iceland was discovered by Naddoddr, one of the first settlers on the
Faroe IslandsThe Faroe Islands, sometimes Faeroe Islands, Faroe, or Faeroes are an island group situated between the Norwegian Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, approximately halfway between Scotland and Iceland...
, who was sailing from
NorwayNorway , officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a country in Northern Europe occupying the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, as well as Jan Mayen and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard under the Spitsbergen Treaty...
to the Faroe Islands, but got lost and drifted to the east coast of Iceland. Naddoddr named the country
Snæland (Snowland).
SwedishSweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe...
sailor Garðar Svavarsson also accidentally drifted to the coast of Iceland. He discovered that the country was an island and named it
Garðarshólmi (literally
Garðar's Islet) and stayed for the winter at
HúsavíkHúsavík is a small town in Norðurþing municipality on the north of Iceland on the shores of Skjálfandi bay.The income of the inhabitants is derived from tourism and fishing, as well as retail and small industry....
. The first Scandinavian who deliberately sailed to
Garðarshólmi was
Flóki VilgerðarsonFlóki Vilgerðarson was amongst the first Norsemen to find Iceland. His story is documented in the Landnámabók manuscript. He set sail in order to find Gardarsholm and took three ravens to help him find his way...
, also known as Hrafna-Flóki (Raven-Flóki). Flóki settled for one winter at
BarðaströndBarðaströnd is an area of historical interest in nortwestern Iceland. It is the coast between Vatnsfjörður and Sigluneshlíðar in southern Vestfirðir region. This is the place where Flóki Vilgerðarson first set up winter camp....
. It was a cold winter, and when he spotted some
drift iceDrift ice is ice that floats on the surface of the water in cold regions, as opposed to fast ice, which is attached to a shore. Usually drift ice is carried along by winds and sea currents, hence its name, "drift ice"....
in the
fjordGeologically, a fjord is a long, narrow inlet with steep sides, created in a valley carved by glacial activity.-Formation:Fjords are formed when a glacier cuts a v-shaped valley by abrasion of the surrounding bedrock. Many such valleys were formed during the recent ice age...
s he gave the island its current name,
Ísland (Iceland).
First settler
The first permanent settler in Iceland is usually considered to have been a Norwegian chieftain named
Ingólfur ArnarsonIngólfr Arnarson is recognized as the first permanent Nordic settler of Iceland. According to Landnáma he built his homestead in Reykjavík in 874...
. According to the story, he threw two carved pillars overboard as he neared land, vowing to settle wherever they landed. He then sailed along the coast until the pillars were found in the southwestern peninsula, now known as Reykjanesskagi. There he settled with his family around
874-Europe:* Ingólfur Arnarson arrives as the first permanent Viking settler in Iceland, settling in Reykjavík .* The Danes invade Mercia.* The territory of the Vistulans is conquered by King Svatopluk I of Great Moravia.-Asia:...
, in a place he named
ReykjavíkReykjavík is the capital and largest city of Iceland. Its latitude at 64°08' N makes it the world's most northern capital of a sovereign state. It is located in southwestern Iceland, on the southern shore of Faxaflói Bay...
(Bay of Smokes) due to the geothermal steam rising from the earth. This very place would eventually become the capital and the largest city of modern Iceland. It is recognized, however, that Ingólfur Arnarson may not have been the first one to settle permanently in Iceland — that may have been
NáttfariNáttfari escaped from Garðar Svavarsson with a slave and a woman when Garðar set sail to the Hebrides from his new found land which he named Garðarshólmi, now known as Iceland, in the 9th century....
, a slave of Garðar Svavarsson who stayed behind when his master returned to Scandinavia.
Much of the above information comes from
LandnámabókLandnámabók is a medieval Icelandic manuscript describing in considerable detail the settlement of Iceland by the Norse in the 9th and 10th century A.D. It begins with Ingólfur Arnarson's original settlement in Reykjavík and his claims on land to the north, west, east and south...
(Book of Settlement), written some three centuries after the settlement. Archeological findings in Reykjavík are consistent with the date given there: there was a settlement in Reykjavík around 870.
Settlement
Ingólfur was followed by many more Norse chieftains, their families and slaves who settled all the inhabitable areas of the island in the next decades. These people were primarily of
NorwegianNorway , officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a country in Northern Europe occupying the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, as well as Jan Mayen and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard under the Spitsbergen Treaty...
,
IrishIreland is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island in the world. It lies to the north-west of continental Europe and is surrounded by hundreds of islands and islets. To the east of Ireland, separated by the Irish Sea, is the island of Great Britain...
and
ScottishScotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
origin, the Irish and Scots being mainly slaves and servants of the Norse chiefs according to the Icelandic sagas and
LandnámabókLandnámabók is a medieval Icelandic manuscript describing in considerable detail the settlement of Iceland by the Norse in the 9th and 10th century A.D. It begins with Ingólfur Arnarson's original settlement in Reykjavík and his claims on land to the north, west, east and south...
and other documents. A common explanation for this exodus from
NorwayNorway , officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a country in Northern Europe occupying the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, as well as Jan Mayen and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard under the Spitsbergen Treaty...
is that people were fleeing the harsh rule of the Norwegian king
Haraldur HarfagriHarald Fairhair or Harald Finehair , was the first king of Norway....
(Harald the Fair-haired), who is believed to have been uniting some parts of modern Norway during the period. It is also believed that the western fjords of Norway were simply overcrowded in this period. The settlement of Iceland is thoroughly recorded in the aforementioned
LandnámabókLandnámabók is a medieval Icelandic manuscript describing in considerable detail the settlement of Iceland by the Norse in the 9th and 10th century A.D. It begins with Ingólfur Arnarson's original settlement in Reykjavík and his claims on land to the north, west, east and south...
, although it should be remembered that the book was compiled in the early
12th centuryAs a means of recording the passage of time, the 12th century is the period from 1101 to 1200 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian/Common Era. In the history of European culture, this period is considered part of the High Middle Ages and is sometimes called the Age of the...
when at least 200 years had passed from the age of settlement.
Ari ÞorgilssonAri Þorgilsson was Iceland's most prominent medieval chronicler. He is the author of Íslendingabók, which details the histories of the various families who settled Iceland...
's
ÍslendingabókÍslendingabók, Libellus Islandorum or The Book of Icelanders is an historical work dealing with early Icelandic history. The author was an Icelandic priest, Ari Þorgilsson, working in the early 12th century. The work originally existed in two different versions but only the younger one has come...
is generally considered more reliable as a source and is probably somewhat older, but it is far less thorough. It does say that Iceland was fully settled within 60 years, which likely means that all territory had been claimed by various settlers.
Commonwealth (930-1262)
In
930-Europe:* With the establishment of the Althing, now the world's oldest parliament, the Icelandic Commonwealth is founded.-Asia:* Emperor Suzaku ascends to the throne of Japan.* The independent Korean island state of Usanguk becomes a protectorate of Goryeo....
, the ruling chiefs established an assembly called the Alþingi (Althing). The
parliamentA parliament is a legislature, especially in those countries whose system of government is based on the Westminster system modeled after that of the United Kingdom. The name is derived from the French parlement, the action of parler : a parlement is a discussion. The term came to mean a meeting at...
convened each summer at
Þingvellir, is a place in Bláskógarbyggð in southwestern Iceland, near the peninsula of Reykjanes and the Hengill volcanic area. Þingvellir is a site of historical, cultural, and geological importance and is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Iceland...
, where representative chieftains (Goðorðsmenn or Goðar) amended laws, settled disputes and appointed juries to judge lawsuits. Laws were not written down, but were instead memorized by an elected
LawspeakerA lawspeaker is a unique Scandinavian legal office. It has its basis in a common Germanic oral tradition, where wise men were asked to recite the law, but it was only in Scandinavia that the function evolved into an office...
(
lögsögumaður). The Alþingi is sometimes stated to be the world's oldest existing parliament. Importantly, there was no central executive power, and therefore laws were enforced only by the people. This gave rise to
blood-feudsA feud is a long-running argument or fight between parties—often, through guilt by association, groups of people, especially families or clans. Feuds begin because one party perceives itself to have been attacked, insulted or wronged by another...
, which provided the writers of the
Icelanders' sagasThe Sagas of Icelanders —many of which are also known as family sagas—are prose histories mostly describing events that took place in Iceland in the 10th and early 11th centuries, during the so-called Saga Age. They are the best-known specimens of Icelandic literature.The Icelanders'...
with plenty of material.
Iceland enjoyed a mostly uninterrupted period of growth in its commonwealth years. Settlements from that era have been found in southwest
GreenlandGreenland is an autonomous constituent country within the Kingdom of Denmark located between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago...
and eastern
CanadaCanada is a country occupying most of northern North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
, and sagas such as
Eiríks saga Rauða and
Grænlendinga saga speak of the settlers' exploits.
Christianisation
The settlers of Iceland were dominantly
pagansGermanic paganism, or Germanic mythology includes the theology and religious practices of the Germanic peoples preceding their Christianization. The best documented version of the Germanic pagan religions is 10th and 11th century Odinism, though other information can be found from Anglo-Saxon and...
and worshipped the Norse gods, among them
OdinOdin , is considered the chief god in Norse paganism and the ruler of Asgard. Homologous with the Anglo-Saxon Wōden and the Old High German Wotan, it is descended from Proto-Germanic *Wōđinaz or *Wōđanaz.The name Odin is generally accepted as the modern translation; although, in some cases, older...
,
ThorThor is the red-haired and bearded god of thunder in Germanic mythology and Germanic paganism, and its subsets: Norse paganism, Anglo-Saxon paganism and Continental Germanic paganism....
,
FreyrFreyr is one of the most important gods of Norse paganism. Freyr was highly associated with agriculture, weather and, as a phallic fertility god, Freyr "bestows peace and pleasure on mortals"...
and Freyja. However, by the 10th century political pressure from Europe to convert to Christianity mounted. As the end of the millennium grew near many prominent Icelanders had accepted the new faith. In the year 1000, as a civil war between the religious groups seemed likely, the Alþing appointed one of the chieftains,
Þorgeirr LjósvetningagoðiÞorgeirr Þorkelsson Ljósvetningagoði was an Icelandic lawspeaker in Iceland's Althing from 985 to 1001.In the year 999 or 1000, Iceland's legislative assembly was debating which religion they should practise: Norse paganism, or Christianity...
, to decide the issue of religion by arbitration. He decided that the country should convert to Christianity as a whole, but that pagans would be allowed to worship secretly.
The first Icelandic bishop, Ísleifr Gizurarson, was consecrated by bishop Adalbert of Bremen in 1056.
Civil War and the end of the Commonwealth
During the 11th and 12th centuries, the centralization of power had worn down the institutions of the Commonwealth, as the former, notable independence of local farmers and chieftains gave way to the growing power of a handful of families and their leaders. The period from around 1200 to 1262 is generally known as
Sturlungaöld, the "Age of the
SturlungsThe Sturlungs were a powerful family clan in medieval mid-13th century Iceland, in the time of the Icelandic Commonwealth. Their story is partly told in Sturlunga saga, and members of the clan were significant participants in the civil war of the Sturlungaöld.The Sturlungs were extremely wealthy...
." This refers to
Sturla ÞórðarsonSturla Þórðarson was an Icelandic politician/chieftain and writer of sagas and contemporary history during the 13th century....
and his sons Þórður, Sighvatur, and
SnorriSnorri Sturluson was an Icelandic historian, poet and politician. He was twice elected lawspeaker at the Icelandic parliament, the Althing...
, who were one of two main clans fighting for power over Iceland, causing havoc in a land comprised almost entirely of farmers who could ill-afford to travel far from their farms to travel across the island to fight for their leaders. In 1220 Snorri Sturluson became a vassal of
Haakon IV of NorwayHaakon Haakonsson , also called Haakon the Old, was king of Norway from 1217 to 1263. Under his rule, medieval Norway reached its peak....
; his nephew
Sturla SighvatssonSturla Sighvatsson was an Icelandic chieftain or goði of the Sturlungar family clan who played an active role in the armed conflicts in Iceland during the Age of the Sturlungs ....
also became a vassal in 1235. Sturla used the power and influence of the Sturlungar family to wage war against the other clans in Iceland. After decades of conflict, the Icelandic chieftains agreed to accept the sovereignty of Norway and signed the Old Covenant (
Gamli sáttmáli) establishing a union with the Norwegian monarchy.
Little Ice Age
Around the time Iceland became a vassal state of Norway, a climate shift occurred -- a phenomenon now called the
Little Ice AgeThe Little Ice Age was a period of cooling that occurred after a warmer era known as the Medieval Warm Period. While not a true ice age, the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939...
. Areas near the
Arctic CircleThe Arctic Circle is one of the five major circles of latitude that mark maps of the Earth. In , it is the parallel of latitude that runs approximately 66° 33′ 39″ north of the Equator. The region north of this circle is known as the Arctic, and the zone just to the south is called the Northern...
such as Iceland and
GreenlandGreenland is an autonomous constituent country within the Kingdom of Denmark located between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago...
began to have shorter growing seasons and colder winters. Since Iceland was marginal farmland in good times, the climate change resulted in hardship for population. It became more difficult to raise
barleyBarley is a cereal grain derived from the annual grass Hordeum vulgare. It serves as a major animal feed crop, with smaller amounts used for malting and in health food. It is used in soups, stews and barley bread in various countries, such as Scotland and in Africa...
, the primary cereal crop, and livestock required additional fodder to survive longer and colder winters. Icelanders began to trade for grain from continental Europe — an expensive proposition. Fortunately, Church fast days increased demand for
dried codfishStockfish is unsalted fish, especially cod, dried by sun and wind on wooden racks on the foreshore called flakes, or in special drying houses. The drying of food is the world's oldest known preservation method, and dried fish has a storage life of several years...
, which was easily caught and prepared for export, and cod trade became an important part of the economy.
Iceland under Norwegian and Danish kings (1262-1944)
Little changed in the decades following the treaty. Norway's consolidation of power in Iceland was slow, and the
AlthingThe Alþingi, Anglicized variously as Althing or Althingi, is the national parliament—literally, " all-thing" —of Iceland...
intended to hold onto its legislative and judicial power. Nonetheless, the Christian clergy had unique opportunities to accumulate wealth via the
titheA tithe is a one-tenth part of something, paid as a voluntary contribution or as a tax or levy, usually to support a religious organization. Today, tithes are normally voluntary and paid in cash, cheques, or stocks, whereas historically tithes could be paid in kind, such as agricultural products...
, and power gradually shifted to ecclesiastical authorities as Iceland's two bishops in
SkálholtSkálholt is an historical site situated in the south of Iceland at the river Hvítá.-History:Skálholt was, through eight centuries, one of the most important places in Iceland. From 1056 and until 1785, it was one of Iceland's two episcopal sees, along with Hólar, making it a cultural and political...
and
HólarHólar is a small community, with a population of around 100, located in the Skagafjörður district of northern Iceland, some 379 km from Reykjavík.- History :...
acquired land at the expense of the old chieftains.
Danish rule
Iceland remained under Norwegian kingship until 1380, when the death of
Olav IVOluf IV Haakonsson was king of Denmark as Oluf II and king of Norway as Olav IV . Oluf was son of King Haakon VI of Norway and the grandson of Magnus II of Sweden. His mother was Queen Margaret of Denmark which made him the grandson of Valdemar IV of Denmark...
extinguished the Norwegian male royal line. Norway (and thus Iceland) then became part of the
Kalmar UnionThe Kalmar Union is a historiographical term meaning a series of personal unions that united the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway , and Sweden under a single monarch, though intermittently and with a population less than 3,000,000.The countries had not...
, along with
SwedenSweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe...
and
DenmarkDenmark is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe and the senior member of the Kingdom of Denmark. It is the southernmost of the Nordic countries; southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and it is bordered to the south by Germany. Denmark borders both the Baltic and the North Sea...
, with Denmark as the dominant power. Unlike Norway, Denmark did not need Iceland's fish and homespun wool. This created a dramatic deficit in Iceland's trade, and as a result, no new ships for continental trading were built. The small
GreenlandGreenland is an autonomous constituent country within the Kingdom of Denmark located between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago...
colony, established in the late 10th century, died out completely before 1500.
With the introduction of
absolute monarchyAbsolute monarchy is a monarchical form of government where the king or queen has absolute power over all aspects of his/her subjects' lives. Although some religious authorities may be able to discourage the monarch from some acts and the sovereign is expected to act according to custom, in an...
in
Denmark–NorwayDenmark–Norway is the historiographical name for a former political entity consisting of the kingdoms of Denmark and Norway, including the Norwegian dependencies of Iceland, Greenland and the Faroe Islands...
in 1660 under
Frederick IIIFrederick III was king of Denmark and Norway from 1648 until his death. He stands as the ruler who introduced absolute monarchy in Denmark.-Before becoming king:...
, the Icelanders relinquished their autonomy to the crown, including the right to initiate and consent to legislation. Denmark, however, did not provide much protection to Iceland, which was raided in 1627 by an
OttomanThe Ottoman Empire or Ottoman State , also known by its contemporaries as the Turkish Empire or Turkey , was an empire that lasted from 1299 to November 1, 1922 The Ottoman Empire or Ottoman State (Ottoman Turkish: دَوْلَتِ عَلِیَّهِ عُثْمَانِیَّه Dawlet-il ʿAliyyat-il ʿOs̠māniyye, Modern Turkish:...
pirate fleet that abducted almost 300 Icelanders into
slaverySlavery is a form of forced labor in which people are considered to be the property of others. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to receive compensation...
, in the episode known as the
Turkish AbductionsThe Turkish Abductions were a series of raids that took place in Iceland between July 4 – July 19 1627. Both Austurland and Vestmannaeyjar were raided by Barbary pirates; hundreds of the inhabitants were kidnapped, and 242 of them later were sold into slavery on the Barbary Coast...
.
Reformation
By the middle of the 16th century,
Christian III of DenmarkChristian III , king of Denmark and Norway, was the son of Frederick I of Denmark and his first consort, Anna of Brandenburg.-Childhood:...
began to impose
LutheranismLutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the teachings of the 16th century German reformer Martin Luther. Luther's efforts to reform the theology and practice of the church launched the Protestant Reformation...
on his subjects.
Jón ArasonJón Arason was an Icelandic Roman Catholic bishop and poet. He became a priest about 1504, and having attracted the notice of Gottskálk Nikulásson, bishop of Hólar, was sent by that prelate on two missions to Norway. In 1522 he succeeded Gottskálk in the see of Hólar, but he was soon driven out by...
and Ögmundur Pálsson, the Catholic bishops of Skálholt and Hólar respectively, opposed Christian's efforts at promoting the
ReformationThe Protestant Reformation was a Christian reform movement in Europe which is generally deemed to have begun with Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses in 1517 although a number of precursors such as Jan Hus predate that event...
in Iceland. Ögmundur was deported by Danish officials in 1541, but Jón Arason put up a fight. Opposition to the reformation ended in 1550 when Jón Arason was captured after being defeated in the
Battle of SauðafellThe Battle of Sauðafell occurred in 1550, when the forces of Bishop Jón Arason clashed with the forces of Daði Guðmundsson of Snóksdalur.-Location:...
by loyalist forces under Daði Guðmundsson. Jón Arason and his two sons were subsequently beheaded in Skálholt. Following this, the Icelanders became Lutherans and remain largely so to this day.
In 1602 Iceland was forbidden to trade with other countries than Denmark, by order of the Danish government. The Danish trade monopoly would remain in effect until 1854.
Independence movement
In the 18th century, climatic conditions in Iceland reached an all-time low since the original settlement. On top of this, the
Laki volcanoLaki or Lakagígar is a volcanic fissure situated in the south of Iceland, not far from the canyon of Eldgjá and the small town Kirkjubæjarklaustur, in Skaftafell National Park....
in Iceland erupted in 1783, spitting out three cubic miles (12.5 km³) of lava. Floods, ash, and fumes wiped out 9,000 people and 80 percent of the livestock. The ensuing starvation killed a quarter of Iceland's population. This period is known as the Mist Hardship (Icelandic:
MóðuharðindinMóðuharðindin was a natural disaster in Iceland in the years 1783–1785 following the volcanic eruption of Laki volcano....
).
When the two kingdoms of Denmark and Norway were separated by the
Treaty of KielThe Treaty of Kiel was a settlement between Sweden and Denmark-Norway on 14 January 1814, whereby the Danish king, a loser in the Napoleonic Wars, ceded Norway to the king of Sweden, in return for the Swedish holdings in Pomerania. However, the treaty signed in Kiel would never come into force...
in 1814 following the
Napoleonic WarsThe Napoleonic Wars were a series of conflicts declared against Napoleon's French Empire and changing sets of European allies by opposing coalitions that ran from 1803 to 1815. As a continuation of the wars sparked by the French Revolution of 1789, they revolutionized European armies and played...
, Denmark kept Iceland as a dependency.
Throughout the 19th century, the country's climate continued to grow worse, resulting in mass emigration to the
New WorldThe New World is one of the names used for the non-Afro-Eurasian parts of the Earth, specifically the Americas and possibly Australia. When the term originated in the late 15th century, the Americas were new to the Europeans, who previously thought of the world as consisting only of Europe, Asia,...
, particularly
ManitobaManitoba is a prairie province in Canada and has an area of . Manitoba is bordered by the provinces of Ontario to the east and Saskatchewan to the west, the territory of Nunavut to the north, and the U.S. states of North Dakota and Minnesota to the south...
in
CanadaCanada is a country occupying most of northern North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
. However, a new national consciousness was revived in Iceland, inspired by
romantic nationalistRomantic nationalism is the form of nationalism in which the state derives its political legitimacy as an organic consequence of the unity of those it governs...
ideas from
continental EuropeContinental Europe, also referred to as mainland Europe or simply the Continent, is the continent of Europe, explicitly excluding European islands and, at times, peninsulas. Notably, in British and Irish English usage, the term means Europe excluding the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man, the Channel...
. An independence movement developed under
Jón SigurðssonJón Sigurðsson was the leader of the 19th century Icelandic independence movement.Born at Hrafnseyri, near Arnarfjörður in the Westfjords area of Iceland, he was the son of a pastor, Sigurður Jónsson. He moved to Copenhagen, Denmark, in 1833 to study grammar and history at the university there...
. In 1843 a new
AlthingThe Alþingi, Anglicized variously as Althing or Althingi, is the national parliament—literally, " all-thing" —of Iceland...
was founded as a consultative assembly. It claimed continuity with the Althing of the
Icelandic CommonwealthThe Icelandic Commonwealth or the Icelandic Free State was the state existing in Iceland between the establishment of the Althing in 930 and the pledge of fealty to the Norwegian king in 1262...
, which had remained for centuries as a judicial body and been abolished in 1800.
Home rule and sovereignty
In 1874, a thousand years after the first acknowledged settlement, Denmark granted Iceland home rule, which again was expanded in 1904. The constitution, written in 1874, was revised in 1903, and a minister for Icelandic affairs, residing in
ReykjavíkReykjavík is the capital and largest city of Iceland. Its latitude at 64°08' N makes it the world's most northern capital of a sovereign state. It is located in southwestern Iceland, on the southern shore of Faxaflói Bay...
, was made responsible to the Althing, the first of whom was
Hannes HafsteinHannes Þórður Pétursson Hafstein was an Icelandic politician and poet. In 1904 he became the first Prime Minister of Iceland and the first Icelander to be appointed to the Danish Cabinet as the Minister for Iceland in the Cabinet of Deuntzer and was - unlike the previous Minister for Iceland Peter...
. The Act of Union, a December 1, 1918, agreement with Denmark, recognized Iceland as a fully-sovereign state (the
Kingdom of IcelandThe Kingdom of Iceland was a constitutional monarchy lasting from 1 December 1918 until 17 June 1944, when it became an independent republic.- Origins in Danish rule :...
), joined with Denmark in a
personal unionA personal union is the combination by which two or more different states are governed by the same monarch while their boundaries, their laws and their interests remain distinct. It should not be confused with a federation which is internationally considered a single state...
with the Danish king. Iceland established its own flag and asked Denmark to represent its foreign affairs and defense interests. The Act would be up for revision in 1940 and could be revoked three years later if agreement was not reached.
World War II and the establishment of the Republic
The
occupation of DenmarkNazi Germany’s Occupation of Denmark began with Operation Weserübung 9 April 1940, and lasted until German forces withdrew at the end of World War II following their surrender to the Allies on 5 May 1945. Contrary to the situation in other countries under German occupation, most Danish institutions...
by
Nazi GermanyNazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany between 1933 and 1945, while it was led by Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Worker's Party . The name Third Reich refers to the state as the successor to the Holy Roman Empire of the Middle Ages and the German...
began on April 9, 1940, severing communications between Iceland and Denmark. As a result, on April 10, the Parliament of Iceland, Alþingi, elected to take control of foreign affairs, electing a provisional governor,
Sveinn BjörnssonSveinn Björnsson , son of Björn Jónsson and Elísabet Sveinsdóttir, was the first president of the Republic of Iceland....
, who later became the republic's first president. During the first year of
World War IIWorld War II, or the Second World War , was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including all great powers, organized into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, Iceland strictly enforced a position of
neutralityA neutral power in a particular war is a sovereign state which declares itself to be neutral towards the belligerents. A non-belligerent state does not need to be neutral. The rights and duties of a neutral power are defined in Sections 5 and 13 of the Hague Convention of 1907...
, taking action against both
BritishThe United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island country, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of Ireland, and many small islands...
and
GermanNazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany between 1933 and 1945, while it was led by Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Worker's Party . The name Third Reich refers to the state as the successor to the Holy Roman Empire of the Middle Ages and the German...
forces violating the laws of neutrality. On May 10, 1940, British military forces began an
invasion of IcelandThe invasion of Iceland, codenamed Operation Fork, was a British military operation conducted by the Royal Navy and the Royal Marines during World War II....
when they sailed into
ReykjavíkReykjavík is the capital and largest city of Iceland. Its latitude at 64°08' N makes it the world's most northern capital of a sovereign state. It is located in southwestern Iceland, on the southern shore of Faxaflói Bay...
harbour in Operation Fork.
The government of Iceland issued a protest against what it called a "flagrant violation" of Icelandic neutrality. On the day of the invasion, Prime Minister
Hermann JónassonHermann Jónasson was an Icelandic politician of the Progressive Party, who was Prime Minister of Iceland on two occasions....
read a radio announcement telling Icelanders to treat the British troops with the politeness due to guests. The
AlliedThe Allies of World War II were the countries that opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War . The involvement of the Allies in World War II was either natural and inevitable they were invaded or under the direct threat of invasion by the Axis or compelled by concerns that the Axis powers...
occupation of Iceland would last throughout the war.
At the peak of their occupation of Iceland, the British had around 25,000 troops stationed in Iceland, all but eliminating unemployment in the Reykjavík area and other strategically important places. In July 1941, responsibility for Iceland's defence passed to the
United StatesThe United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
under a U.S.-Icelandic defence agreement. The British needed all the forces they could muster closer to home and, thus, coerced the Alþingi into agreeing to an American occupation force. Up to 40,000 soldiers were stationed on the island, outnumbering all grown Icelandic men. (At the time, Iceland had a population of around 120,000.)
Following a
referendumA referendum , ballot question, or plebiscite is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal...
, Iceland formally became an independent republic on June 17, 1944, while Denmark was still occupied by Germany. Despite this, the Danish king,
Christian XChristian X was King of Denmark from 1912 to 1947 and last king of Iceland between 1918 and 1944. He was born at Charlottenlund Palace near Copenhagen....
, sent a message of congratulations to the Icelandic people.
Republic of Iceland
Iceland had prospered during the course of the war, amassing considerable currency reserves in foreign banks. The government, led by an unlikely three-party majority cabinet made up of conservatives (the
Independence PartyThe Independence Party is a centre-right political party in Iceland. It was formed in 1929 through a merger of the Conservative Party and the Liberal Party. The party supports Icelandic membership of NATO but is opposed to the idea of joining the European Union. The party's position on EU...
,
Sjálfstæðisflokkurinn),
social democratsSocial democracy is a political ideology of the political left and centre-left on the classic political spectrum. Social democracy emerged in the late 19th century from the socialist movement and continues to exert influence worldwide....
(the
Social Democratic PartyAlþýðuflokkurinn was an Icelandic Political Party based on social democratic ideas. It was founded in 1916 as the political field of the labour unions of Iceland....
,
Alþýðuflokkurinn), and
socialistsSocialism refers to various theories of economic organization advocating public or direct worker ownership and administration of the means of production and allocation of resources, and a society characterized by equal access to resources for all individuals with a method of compensation based on...
(People's Unity Party – Socialist Party,
Sósíalistaflokkurinn), decided to put the funds into a general renovation of the fishing fleet, the building of fish processing facilities, and a general modernization of agriculture. These actions were aimed at keeping Icelanders'
standard of livingStandard of living is generally measured by standards such as real income per person and poverty rate. Other measures such as access and quality of health care, income growth inequality and educational standards are also used. Examples are access to certain goods , or measures of health such as...
as high as it had become during the prosperous war years.
The government's
fiscal policyIn economics, fiscal policy is the use of government spending and revenue collection to influence the economy.Fiscal policy can be contrasted with the other main type of economic policy, monetary policy, which attempts to stabilize the economy by controlling interest rates and the supply of money....
was strictly
KeynesianKeynesian economics is a macroeconomic theory based on the ideas of 20th-century British economist John Maynard Keynes...
, and their aim was to create the necessary industrial infrastructure for a prosperous
developed countryThe term developed country is used to describe countries that have a high level of development according to some criteria. Which criteria, and which countries are classified as being developed, is a contentious issue and there is fierce debate about this. Economic criteria have tended to dominate...
. It was considered essential to keep unemployment down to an absolute minimum and to protect the export fishing industry through currency manipulation and other means. Due to the country's dependence both on unreliable fish catches and foreign demand for fish products, Iceland's economy remained very unstable well into the 1990s, when the country's economy was greatly diversified.
NATO membership
In October 1946, the Icelandic and United States' governments agreed to terminate U.S. responsibility for the defence of Iceland, but the United States retained certain rights at
KeflavíkKeflavík is a town in the Reykjanes region in southwest Iceland.In 1995 it merged with Njarðvík and Hafnir to form a municipality called Reykjanesbær with a population of 14,000 .- History :...
, such as the right to re-establish a military presence there, should war threaten.
Iceland became a charter member of
NATOThe North Atlantic Treaty Organization ); ), also called "the Atlantic Alliance", is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on April 4, 1949...
on March 30, 1949, with the reservation that it would never take part in offensive action against another nation. The membership came amid an
anti-NATO riot in IcelandThe Icelandic NATO riot of March 30 1949 is arguably the most famous riot in Icelandic history. It was prompted by the decision of Alþingi, the Icelandic parliament, to join the newly formed NATO, thereby involving Iceland directly in the Cold War, opposing the Soviet Union and re-militarizing the...
. After the outbreak of the
Korean WarThe Korean War is a war that started between North Korea and South Korea on 25 June 1950 and paused with an armistice signed 27 July, 1953...
in 1950, and pursuant to the request of NATO military authorities, the United States and Alþingi agreed that the United States should again take responsibility for Iceland's defence. This agreement, signed on May 5, 1951, was the authority for the controversial U.S. military presence in Iceland, which remained until 2006. Although U.S. forces no longer maintain a military presence in Iceland, the US still assumes responsibility over the country's defense through NATO. Iceland has retained strong ties to the other
Nordic countriesThe Nordic countries make up a region in Northern Europe and the North Atlantic which consists of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden and their associated territories which include the Faroe Islands, Greenland and Åland...
. As a consequence Norway, Denmark, Germany and other European nations have increased their defense and rescue cooperation with Iceland since the withdrawal of U.S. forces.
Cod Wars
The Cod Wars were a series of conflicts between Iceland and the
United KingdomThe United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island country, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of Ireland, and many small islands...
from the late 1950s to the mid-1970s. The first Cod War took place in 1958 when Britain was unable to prevent Iceland from extending its fishing limits from 4 to 12
milesThe nautical mile is a unit of length corresponding approximately to one minute of arc of latitude along any meridian....
(7 to 22 km) off the coast of Iceland. The second Cod War lasted from 1972 to 1973, when Iceland extended the limit to 50 miles (93 km). The third Cod War began in November 1975, when Iceland extended its zone of control over fishing from 50 miles to 200 miles (370 km). Great Britain did not recognize Iceland's authority in the matter and continued to fish inside the disputed area, making this the third time that Iceland and
Great BritainGreat Britain is an island lying to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island. With a population of about 59.6 million people, it is the third most populated island on Earth. Great Britain is surrounded by over 1000 smaller...
clashed over fishing rights. Iceland deployed a total of eight ships: six
Coast GuardA coast guard or coastguard is a national organization responsible for various services at sea. However the term implies widely different responsibilities in different countries.-Role:...
vessels and two
PolishPoland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe . Poland is bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
-built stern trawlers, to enforce her control over fishing rights. In response, Great Britain deployed a total of twenty-two frigates, seven supply ships, nine tug-boats and three
auxiliary shipAn auxiliary ship is a naval ship which is designed to operate in any number of roles supporting combatant ships and other naval operations. Auxiliaries are not primary combatants, although they may have some limited combat capacity, usually of a self defensive nature.Auxiliaries are extremely...
s to protect its 40 fishing trawlers. While few shots were fired during the seven-month conflict, several ships were rammed on both sides, causing damage to the vessels and a few injuries and deaths to the crews.
Events took a more serious turn occurred when Iceland threatened closure of the U.S.-manned
NATOThe North Atlantic Treaty Organization ); ), also called "the Atlantic Alliance", is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on April 4, 1949...
base at
KeflavíkKeflavík is a town in the Reykjanes region in southwest Iceland.In 1995 it merged with Njarðvík and Hafnir to form a municipality called Reykjanesbær with a population of 14,000 .- History :...
, which, in the military perception of the time, would have severely impaired NATO's ability to defend the
Atlantic OceanThe Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's oceanic divisions. With a total area of about 106.4 million square kilometres , it covers approximately one-fifth of the Earth's surface and about one-quarter of its water surface area. The first part of its name refers to the Atlas of Greek...
from the
Soviet UnionThe Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. The name is a translation of the , tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik, abbreviated СССР, SSSR. The common short name is Soviet Union, from , Sovetskiy Soyuz...
. As a result, the British government agreed to have its fishermen stay outside of Iceland's 200 mile (370 km) exclusion zone without a specific agreement.
EEA membership and economic reform
In 1991, the
Independence PartyThe Independence Party is a centre-right political party in Iceland. It was formed in 1929 through a merger of the Conservative Party and the Liberal Party. The party supports Icelandic membership of NATO but is opposed to the idea of joining the European Union. The party's position on EU...
, led by
Davíð OddssonDavíð Oddsson is an Icelandic politician and the longest-serving Prime Minister of Iceland, holding office from 1991 to 2004. He also served as Foreign Minister from 2004 to 2005. Previously, he was Mayor of Reykjavík from 1982 to 1991, and he chaired the board of governors of the Central Bank of...
, formed a coalition government with the
Social DemocratsAlþýðuflokkurinn was an Icelandic Political Party based on social democratic ideas. It was founded in 1916 as the political field of the labour unions of Iceland....
. This government set in motion market liberalisation policies, privatising a number of small and large companies. Iceland then became a member of the
European Economic AreaThe European Economic Area was established on 1 January 1994 following an agreement between member states of the European Free Trade Association ,the European Community , and all member states of the European Union...
in 1994. Economic stability increased and previously chronic inflation was drastically reduced.
In 1995, the Independence Party formed a coalition government with the
Progressive PartyThe party had been in a government coalition partner to the conservative Independence Party in the period 1995-2007. From 1995 to 2004, it participated in the coalition as the junior partner under the premiership of Independence Party leader Davíð Oddsson, but the two parties agreed after the 2003...
. This government continued with the free market policies, privatising two commercial banks and the state-owned telecom Siminn. Corporate incomes tax was reduced to 18% (from around 50% at the beginning of the decade), inheritance tax was greatly reduced and the net wealth tax abolished. A system of individual transferable quotas in the Icelandic fisheries, first introduced in the late 1970s, was further developed. The coalition government remained in power after relatively successful elections in 1999 and 2003. In 2004, Davíð Oddsson stepped down as Prime Minister after 13 years in office.
Halldór ÁsgrímssonHalldór Ásgrímsson is an Icelandic politician, formerly Prime Minister of Iceland from 2004 to 2006 and leader of the Progressive Party from 1994 to 2006.-Education and early life:...
, leader of the Progressive Party, took over as Prime Minister from 2004 to 2006, followed by Geir H. Haarde, Davíð Oddsson’s successor as leader of the Independence Party.
After a temporary recession in the early 1990s, economic growth was considerable, about 4% per year on average from 1994. The governments of the 1990s and 2000s adhered to a staunch but domestically controversial pro-U.S. foreign policy, lending nominal support to the
NATOThe North Atlantic Treaty Organization ); ), also called "the Atlantic Alliance", is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on April 4, 1949...
action in the
Kosovo WarThe term Kosovo War or Kosovo Conflict is used to describe two sequential and at times parallel armed conflicts in Kosovo:#Early 1998–1999: War between Yugoslav police forces, Yugoslav paramilitaries, and the Kosovo Albanian insurgents....
and signing up as a member of the
Coalition of the willingThe term coalition of the willing is a post-1990 political phrase used to describe military or military/humanitarian interventions for which the United Nations Security Council cannot agree to mount a full UN peacekeeping operation...
during the
2003 invasion of IraqThe 2003 invasion of Iraq, was led by the United States, backed by British forces and smaller contingents from Australia, Denmark, Poland and Spain. Four countries participated with troops during the initial invasion phase, which lasted from March 20 to May 1...
.
In March 2006, the United States announced that it intended to withdraw the greater part of the Icelandic Defence Force. On the 12th of August 2006, the last four F-15s left Icelandic airspace. The United States closed the Keflavík base in September 2006.
Following elections in May 2007, the
Independence PartyIndependence Party can refer to various political parties past and present throughout the world, such as:*Independence Party *Estonian Independence Party*Independence Party *Independence Party...
headed by Geir H. Haarde remained in government, albeit in a new coalition with the Social Democratic Alliance.
Financial crisis
In October 2008, the Icelandic banking system collapsed, prompting Iceland to seek large loans from the IMF and friendly countries. Widespread protests in late 2008 and early 2009 resulted in the resignation of the government of
Geir HaardeGeir Hilmar Haarde was Prime Minister of Iceland from 15 June 2006 to 1 February 2009 and Chairman of the Icelandic Independence Party from 2005 to 2009. Geir initially led a coalition between his party and the Progressive Party...
, which was replaced on the 1st of February 2009 by a coalition government led by the Social Democratic Alliance and the
Left-Green MovementThe Left-Green Movement is a left-wing political party in Iceland.It was founded in 1999 by a few members of Alþingi who did not approve of the planned merger of the left parties in Iceland that resulted in the founding of the Social Democratic Alliance...
. Social Democrat minister
Jóhanna SigurðardóttirJóhanna Sigurðardóttir is an Icelandic politician and the current Prime Minister of Iceland. She had previously been Iceland's Minister of Social Affairs and Social Security from 1987–1994 and 2007–2009. She has been a member of the Althing for Reykjavík constituencies since 1978, winning...
was appointed Prime Minister, becoming the world's first
openlyCloseted or "in the closet" are phrases generally referring to undisclosed sexual identity, sexual behavior, sexual orientation and gender identity. The most common of these concern lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex , but may include people who engage in kink sexual behaviors such...
gay
head of governmentHead of government is the chief officer of the executive branch of a government, often presiding over a cabinet. In a parliamentary system, the head of government is often styled Prime Minister, President of the Government, Premier, etc...
of the modern era.. Elections took place in April 2009 and a continuing coalition government consisting of the Social Democrats and the Left-Green Movement was established in early May 2009.
See also
- Timeline of Icelandic history
This is a timeline of Icelandic history. To read about the background to these events, see History of Iceland.This timeline is incomplete; some important events may be missing...
- Sturlungaöld
- Icelandic Military History
- Cod War
The Cod Wars, also called the Iceland Cod Wars , were a series of confrontations in the 1950s and 1970s between the United Kingdom and Iceland regarding fishing rights in the North Atlantic...
- Alþingi
- Politics of Iceland
Politics of Iceland takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Iceland is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. "It is arguably the world's oldest parliamentary democracy." Executive power is exercised by the...
- Kingdom of Iceland
The Kingdom of Iceland was a constitutional monarchy lasting from 1 December 1918 until 17 June 1944, when it became an independent republic.- Origins in Danish rule :...
External links