The history of
ArgentinaArgentina, officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America, constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires. It is the eighth largest country in the world by land area and the largest among Spanish-speaking nations, though Mexico,...
is divided by historians into four main sections: the pre-Columbian time, or early history (up to the 16th century), the colonial period (roughly 1516 to 1810), the independence wars and the early post-colonial period of the nation (1810 to 1880) and the history of modern Argentina from around 1880.
The beginning of prehistory in the present territory of Argentina began with the first human settlements on the southern tip of
PatagoniaPatagonia is a geographic region containing the southernmost portion of South America. Located in Argentina and Chile, it comprises the southernmost portion of the Andes mountains to the west and south, and plateaux and low plains to the east. The name Patagonia comes from the word patagón used by...
around 13,000 years ago. The written history began with the arrival of Spanish chroniclers with the expedition of
Juan Díaz de SolísJuan Díaz de Solís, , was a Spanish navigator and explorer.Díaz de Solís was probably born in Lebrija, Seville, although some other authors argue that his birth may have actually taken place in Portugal to an Andalusian emigree family....
in 1516 to
Río de la PlataThe Río de la Plata —always rendered River Plate in British English and the Commonwealth, and occasionally rendered [La] Plata River in other English-speaking countries— is the river formed by the combination of the Uruguay River and the Paraná River...
river, which marks the beginning of Spanish domination in this region. In 1776 the Spanish Crown established the
Viceroyalty of the Río de la PlataThe Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata was the last and most short-lived viceroyalty created by Spain in 1776. Its limits roughly contained the territories of present...
, an umbrella of territories from which, with the
Revolution of May 1810The May Revolution was a series of revolutionary political and social events that took place during the early nineteenth century in the city of Buenos Aires, capitol of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a colony of the Spanish Crown which at the time contained the present-day nations of...
, began a process of gradual formation of several independent states, including that carried the name United Provinces of Río de la Plata. With the
declaration of independenceWhat today is commonly referred as the Independence of Argentina was declared on July 9 1816 by the Congress of Tucumán. Actually, Argentina was not a country yet; the congressmen joined in Tucuman declared the independence of the United Provinces of South America...
on July 9, 1816 and the military defeat of the
Spanish EmpireThe Spanish Empire was one of the largest empires in world history, and one of the first global empires. It included territories and colonies in Europe, the Americas, Africa, Asia and Oceania, from the 15th century through—in the case of its African holdings—the latter portion of the 20th century...
in 1824, a federal state was formed in 1853-1861, known today as the Republic of Argentina.
Pre-Columbian era
The area now known as Argentina was relatively sparsely populated until the period of European colonization. The
DiaguitaThe Diaguita, also called Diaguita-Calchaquí, are a group of South American indigenous peoples. The Diaguita culture developed between the 8th and 16th centuries in what are now the provinces of Salta, Catamarca, La Rioja and Tucumán in northwestern Argentina, and in the Atacama and Coquimbo...
of northwestern Argentina lived on the edges of the expanding
Inca EmpireThe Inca Empire was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru. The Inca Empire arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in early 13th century...
; the
GuaraníGuaraní are a group of culturally related indigenous peoples of South America. They distinguished from the related Tupi by their use of the Guaraní language. The traditional range of the Guaraní people is in what is now Paraguay between the Uruguay River and lower Paraguay River, the Corrientes and...
lived farther east and north east. In the North were the Quechua peoples, and Patagonia was inhabited by other tribes known as Tehuelches.
Spanish colonial era
Europeans first arrived in the region with the 1502 voyage of Amerigo Vespucci. The Spanish navigator
Juan Díaz de SolísJuan Díaz de Solís, , was a Spanish navigator and explorer.Díaz de Solís was probably born in Lebrija, Seville, although some other authors argue that his birth may have actually taken place in Portugal to an Andalusian emigree family....
visited the territory which is now
ArgentinaArgentina, officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America, constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires. It is the eighth largest country in the world by land area and the largest among Spanish-speaking nations, though Mexico,...
in 1516 and in 1536 the Spaniards founded a small settlement. Spain established a permanent colony on the site of what would later become the city
Buenos AiresBuenos Aires is the capital, and largest city, of Argentina, currently the second-largest metropolitan area in South America, after São Paulo. It is located on the eastern shore of the Río de la Plata, on the southeastern coast of the South American continent...
in 1580, as part of the
Viceroyalty of PeruCreated in 1542, the Viceroyalty of Peru was a Spanish colonial administrative district that originally contained most of Spanish-ruled South America, governed from the capital of Lima...
. Settlers initially arrived primarily overland from
PeruPeru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean.Peruvian territory was home to the Norte Chico...
.
The natural ports on the
Río de la PlataThe Río de la Plata —always rendered River Plate in British English and the Commonwealth, and occasionally rendered [La] Plata River in other English-speaking countries— is the river formed by the combination of the Uruguay River and the Paraná River...
estuaryAn estuary is a semi-enclosed coastal body of water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea. Estuaries are thus subject to both marine influences, such as tides, waves, and the influx of saline water; and riverine influences, such as flows of...
could not be used because all ships were meant to be made through the port of
LimaLima is the capital and largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers, on a coast overlooking the Pacific Ocean. It forms a contiguous urban area with the seaport of Callao...
, a condition that led to
contrabandThe English word contraband, reported in English since 1529, from Medieval French contrebande "a smuggling," derived via Italian contrabbando from Latin contra "against" + Middle Latin bannum , denotes any item which, relating to its nature, is illegal to be possessed,...
becoming the normal means of commerce in cities such as
AsunciónAsunción is the capital and largest city of Paraguay.The "Ciudad de Asunción" is an autonomous capital district not part of any department....
,
Buenos AiresBuenos Aires is the capital, and largest city, of Argentina, currently the second-largest metropolitan area in South America, after São Paulo. It is located on the eastern shore of the Río de la Plata, on the southeastern coast of the South American continent...
, and
MontevideoMontevideo is the largest city, the capital and chief port of Uruguay. Montevideo is the only city in the country with a population over 1,000,000...
.
The Spanish raised the status of this region by establishing the
Viceroyalty of the Río de la PlataThe Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata was the last and most short-lived viceroyalty created by Spain in 1776. Its limits roughly contained the territories of present...
(in Spanish: Virreinato del Río de la Plata) in 1776. This short-lived viceroyalty comprised today's Argentina,
UruguayUruguay , is a country located in the southeastern part of South America. It is home to 3.46 million people, of whom 1.1 million live in the capital Montevideo and its metropolitan area. An estimated 88–94% of the population are of mostly European and/or mixed descent.Uruguay's only land border is...
, and
ParaguayParaguay, officially the Republic of Paraguay , is one of the two landlocked countries which lie entirely within the Western Hemisphere, the other being Bolivia, both in South America....
, as well as much of present-day
BoliviaBolivia, officially Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country in central South America. It is bordered by Brazil to the north and east, Paraguay and Argentina to the south, and Chile and Peru to the west....
.
Buenos AiresBuenos Aires is the capital, and largest city, of Argentina, currently the second-largest metropolitan area in South America, after São Paulo. It is located on the eastern shore of the Río de la Plata, on the southeastern coast of the South American continent...
became a flourishing port only after the creation of the Viceroyalty, as the revenues from the
PotosíPotosí is a city, the capital of the department of Potosí in Bolivia. It is claimed to be the highest city in the world at a nominal 4,090 m . It lies beneath the Cerro de Potosí — sometimes referred to as the Cerro Rico — a mountain popularly conceived of as being "made of" silver ore, which has...
, the increasing maritime activity in terms of goods rather than
precious metalA precious metal is a rare naturally occurring metallic chemical element of high economic value,which is not radioactive . Chemically, the precious metals are less reactive than most elements, have high lustre, are softer or more ductile, and have higher melting points than other metals...
s, the production of
cattleCattle are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, and are most commonly classified collectively as Bos primigenius...
for the
exportIn economics, an export is any good or commodity, transported from one country to another country in a legitimate fashion, typically for use in trade. Export goods or services are provided to foreign consumers by domestic producers. Export is an important part of international trade...
of
leatherLeather is a material created through the tanning of hides and skins of animals, primarily cattlehide. The tanning process converts the putrescible skin into a durable and versatile material....
and other products, and other political reasons, made it gradually become one of the most important commercial centers of the region.
The viceroyalty was, however, short-lived due to lack of internal cohesion among the many regions of which it was constituted and to lack of Spanish support. It collapsed when
NapoleonNapoleon Bonaparte later known as Napoleon I, and previously Napoleone di Buonaparte, was a military and political leader of France whose actions shaped European politics in the early 19th century.Born in Corsica and trained as an artillery officer in mainland France, Bonaparte rose to prominence...
successfully invaded Spain and overthrew the Spanish monarchy.
The failed
British invasions of the Río de la PlataThe British invasions of the Río de la Plata were a series of unsuccessful British attempts to seize control of the Spanish colonies located around the La Plata Basin in South America . The invasions took place between 1806 and 1807, as part of the Napoleonic Wars, when Spain was an ally of...
in 1806 and 1807 had also boosted the confidence of the colonists after they had successfully stood up against a stronger invading army without receiving military support from their metropoli.
War of independence
News of the
French RevolutionThe French Revolution was a period of political and social upheaval and radical change in the history of France, during which the French governmental structure, previously an absolute monarchy with feudal privileges for the aristocracy and Catholic clergy, underwent radical change to forms based...
and the
American Revolutionary WarThe American Revolutionary War , also sometimes known as the American War of Independence, began as a war between the Kingdom of Great Britain and thirteen united former British colonies in North America, and concluded in a global war between several European great powers...
brought liberal ideas to
Latin AmericaLatin America is a region of the Americas where Romance languages – particularly Spanish, Portuguese, and variably French – are primarily spoken. Latin America has an area of approximately 21,069,501 km² , almost 3.9% of the Earth's surface or 14.1% of its land surface area...
. After the French seized power in Spain,
Buenos AiresBuenos Aires is the capital, and largest city, of Argentina, currently the second-largest metropolitan area in South America, after São Paulo. It is located on the eastern shore of the Río de la Plata, on the southeastern coast of the South American continent...
formed its own
juntaIn the Napoleonic Era, junta was the name chosen by several local administrations forming in Spain during the Peninsular War as a patriotic alternative to the official administration toppled by the French invaders.-Junta Suprema Central, 1808-1810:...
on May 25, 1810 and invited the other provinces to join. Two states emerged in what is now Argentina:
- 1810 - United Provinces of South America
The United Provinces of South America was the original name of a state that would become the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata which would then become Argentina. Formed in 1810 from provinces of the former Spanish Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata and had Buenos Aires as its capital...
- 1815 - Liga Federal
The Federal League or League of Free Peoples was a confederal state based around Montevideo from 1815 to 1820 in what is now Uruguay and parts of Argentina that was created after the break up of the Spanish Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata...
Other provinces through the reluctance of some factions and the centralist tendencies of the more radical activists delayed a combined State. Meanwhile,
ParaguayParaguay, officially the Republic of Paraguay , is one of the two landlocked countries which lie entirely within the Western Hemisphere, the other being Bolivia, both in South America....
declared its independence in 1811.
Military campaigns led by General
José de San MartínJosé Francisco de San Martín Matorras, also known as José de San Martín , was an Argentine general and the prime leader of the southern part of South America's successful struggle for independence from Spain....
between 1814 and 1817 gave more strenght to the factions that supported the independist movements. In 1820
Liga FederalThe Federal League or League of Free Peoples was a confederal state based around Montevideo from 1815 to 1820 in what is now Uruguay and parts of Argentina that was created after the break up of the Spanish Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata...
was crushed by forces of the
United Provinces of South AmericaThe United Provinces of South America was the original name of a state that would become the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata which would then become Argentina. Formed in 1810 from provinces of the former Spanish Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata and had Buenos Aires as its capital...
and Portugal armies from Brazil and its provinces absorbed into United Provinces of South America. Argentines revere San Martín, who campaigned in
ArgentinaArgentina, officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America, constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires. It is the eighth largest country in the world by land area and the largest among Spanish-speaking nations, though Mexico,...
,
ChileChile, officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
, and Peru, as the hero of their national independence. On July 9, 1816, a Congress gathered in
TucumánSan Miguel de Tucumán is the largest city in northern Argentina, with a population of 527,607 per the . The metropolitan area totals 830,000, making it the fifth-largest in the country. It is the capital of the province of Tucumán...
(the
Congress of TucumánThe Congress of Tucumán was the representative assembly of the United Provinces of the River Plate formed in 1816, initially meeting in Tucumán. The Congress declared the independence of Argentina on July 9 1816....
) and finally issued a formal declaration of independence from Spain.
BoliviaBolivia, officially Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country in central South America. It is bordered by Brazil to the north and east, Paraguay and Argentina to the south, and Chile and Peru to the west....
declared itself independent in 1825, and
UruguayUruguay , is a country located in the southeastern part of South America. It is home to 3.46 million people, of whom 1.1 million live in the capital Montevideo and its metropolitan area. An estimated 88–94% of the population are of mostly European and/or mixed descent.Uruguay's only land border is...
was created in 1828 as a result of the
Argentina-Brazil WarThe Argentina-Brazil War was an armed conflict over an area known as Banda Oriental or "Eastern Strip" in the 1820s between the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata and Empire of Brazil in the aftermath of the United Provinces' emancipation from Spain.-Background:Against the background of...
.
The United Kingdom officially recognized Argentine independence in 1825, with the signing of a
Treaty of Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation on February 2; the British
chargé d'affairesIn diplomacy, chargé d’affaires , often shortened to simply chargé, is the title of two classes of diplomatic agents who head a diplomatic mission on a temporary basis.-Chargés d’affaires:...
in Buenos Aires,
Woodbine ParishSir Woodbine Parish KCH was a British diplomat, traveller and scientist.Educated at Eton College, he took up his first diplomatic post in 1814, and was involved in events immediately following the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo...
, signed on behalf of his country.
Following the defeat of the Spanish, centralist
unitarios waged a lengthy conflict against federalists to determine the future of the nation. The dominant figure of this period was the federalist
Juan Manuel de RosasJuan Manuel de Rosas , was a conservative Argentine politician who governed the Buenos Aires Province from 1829 to 1832 and again, from 1835 to 1852...
, who is considered by the traditional historiography a
dictatorA dictator is a ruler who assumes sole and absolute power with military control but, without hereditary ascension such as an absolute monarch. When other states call the head of state of a particular state a dictator, that state is called a dictatorship...
. He ruled the province of Buenos Aires from 1829 to 1852 while acting as a caretaker of the external relations for the whole country, which lacked any other form of federal government. Rosas was far more concerned with establishing his own dominance in Buenos Aires than with any principled federalism. He developed a paramilitary force of his own,
La Mazorca ("the Corncob"), which earned the federalists the derogatory nickname of
mazorqueros, while they preferred to be known as
The Holy Federation. This feared band was also nicknamed
más horca ("more gallows"), which is a homophone of
La Mazorca in Spanish.
General
Justo José de UrquizaJusto José de Urquiza y García was an Argentine general and politician. He was president of the Argentine Confederation from 1854 to 1860....
, a defecting federalist supported by
UruguayUruguay , is a country located in the southeastern part of South America. It is home to 3.46 million people, of whom 1.1 million live in the capital Montevideo and its metropolitan area. An estimated 88–94% of the population are of mostly European and/or mixed descent.Uruguay's only land border is...
and
BrazilBrazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is a country in South America. It is the fifth largest country by geographical area, occupying nearly half of South America, the fifth most populous country, and the fourth most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean...
, defeated Rosas during the
battle of CaserosThe Battle of Caseros was fought near the town of Caseros, more precisely between the present-day train stations of Caseros and Palomar in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, on 3 February 1852, between the Army of Buenos Aires commanded by Juan Manuel de Rosas...
. Argentine national unity was at least nominally established, and a constitution promulgated in 1853. The constitution was strongly defended in moving oratory by the patriot and
FranciscanThe term Franciscan is commonly used to refer to members of Catholic religious orders, also known as the Orders of Friars Minor, that follow a body of regulations known as "The rule of St. Francis", or a member of one of these orders. As well as Roman Catholic there are also small Old Catholic and...
Mamerto EsquiúMamerto de la Ascensión Esquiú, Servant of God was a historically significant Argentine friar.He was born in Piedra Blanca in Catamarca Province to Esquiú and María de las Nieves Medina...
, after whom one of the country's departments is named.
During the early part of this period,
ArgentinaThis article is about the demographic features of the population of Argentina, including population density, ethnicity, economic status and other aspects of the population.-Demographic statistics:...
was largely a country of
SpanishSpanish people or Spaniards constitute the nationality and ethnic group of natives of Spain, a European country in the Iberian Peninsula, in southwestern Europe. The Spanish nationality is in essence made up of regional nationalities, reflecting the complex history of Spain...
immigrants and their descendants, known as
criollos. Some of them gathered in
Buenos AiresBuenos Aires is the capital, and largest city, of Argentina, currently the second-largest metropolitan area in South America, after São Paulo. It is located on the eastern shore of the Río de la Plata, on the southeastern coast of the South American continent...
and other cities, others living on the
pampas as
gauchoGaucho is a term commonly used to describe residents of the South American pampas, chacos or Patagonian grasslands, found principally in parts of Argentina, Uruguay, Southern Chile and Southern Region, Brazil...
s. Descendants of
African slavesThis article is about the demographic features of the population of Argentina, including population density, ethnicity, economic status and other aspects of the population.-Demographic statistics:...
were present in significant numbers, but most eventually merged with the general population. Indigenous peoples inhabited the mountainous northwestern and the southern regions.
The rural economy at this time was based almost entirely on animal husbandry (cattle and sheep). While Argentina's fertile lands were ideal for the cultivation of cereal crops, the country lacked a large enough labor force to support an arable sector. As a consequence, capital-intensive economic activities such as livestock raising dominated domestic production. Meanwhile Indians continued to menace the Southern frontier. As
BorgesJorge Francisco Isidoro Luis Borges Acevedo , best known as Jorge Luis Borges, was an Argentine writer and poet born in Buenos Aires. In 1914, his family moved to Switzerland where he attended school and traveled to Spain. On his return to Argentina in 1921, Borges began publishing his poems and...
wrote,
ArgentinaArgentina, officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America, constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires. It is the eighth largest country in the world by land area and the largest among Spanish-speaking nations, though Mexico,...
had achieved its independence from Spain, but the Spanish conquest of
ArgentinaArgentina, officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America, constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires. It is the eighth largest country in the world by land area and the largest among Spanish-speaking nations, though Mexico,...
was still incomplete. Economically,
Fernand BraudelFernand Braudel , was the foremost French historian of the postwar era, and a leader of the Annales School. He organized his scholarship around three great projects, each worth several decades of intense study: "The Mediterranean" , "Civilization and Capitalism" , and the unfinished, "Identity of...
(1984, p. 413), claims that Argentina exchanged Spanish masters for a new dependence on British capital as the end of Spanish rule was followed by heavy investment by the
City of LondonThe City of London is a small area within Greater London, England. It is the historic core of London around which the modern conurbation grew and has held city status since time immemorial. The City’s boundaries have remained almost unchanged since the Middle Ages, and it is now only a tiny part of...
, in 1824-1825.
The emergence of modern Argentina
Two forces combined to create the modern Argentine nation in the late 19th century: the introduction of modern agricultural techniques and integration of Argentina into the world economy. Foreign investment and
immigrationImmigration is the arrival of new individuals into a habitat or population. It is a biological concept and is important in population ecology, differentiated from emigration and migration.-As a political term:...
from Europe aided this economic revolution. Investment, primarily British, came in such fields as railroads and ports, but the foreign owners expected to retain control. The migrants who worked to develop Argentina's resources, especially the western pampas, came from throughout Europe, just as in the United States.
By 1859, the unity of Argentina was largely secured, although it would be two decades more before the centralists completed their victory over the federalists. In 1862, the National Assembly selected the liberal politician
Bartolomé MitreBartolomé Mitre Martinez was an Argentine statesman, military figure, and author. He was the President of Argentina from 1862 to 1868....
as
presidentThe President of Argentina is the head of state of Argentina...
; in 1868, he was succeeded by
Domingo Faustino SarmientoDomingo Faustino Sarmiento Albarracín was an Argentine activist, intellectual, and writer, and the seventh President of Argentina. His writing spanned a wide range of genres and topics, from journalism to autobiography, to political philosophy and history...
.
During this period (1865–1870), the
War of the Triple AllianceThe War of the Triple Alliance, also known as the Paraguayan War, and the Great War in Paraguay itself, was fought from 1864 to 1870, and caused more deaths than any other South American war...
was fought by Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay against Paraguay. In the following decade, General
Julio Argentino RocaAlejo Julio Argentino Roca Paz was an army general who served as President of Argentina from 12 October 1880 to 12 October 1886 and again from 12 October 1898 to 12 October 1904.-Upbringing and early career:...
established Buenos Aires's dominance over the
pampas (a military operation known as
Conquest of the DesertThe Conquest of the Desert was a military campaign directed mainly by General Julio Argentino Roca in the 1870s, which established Argentine dominance over Patagonia, which was inhabited by indigenous peoples....
) and the
unitarios victory over the federalists; in 1880, Roca became president.
The years from 1880 to 1929 brought Argentina increased
economic prosperityArgentina benefits from rich natural resources, a highly literate population, an export-oriented agricultural sector and a diversified industrial base. Historically, however, Argentina's economic performance has been very uneven, in which high economic growth alternated with severe recessions,...
, mainly by way of export-led growth. The economy was increasingly oriented towards export of agricultural commodities, particularly goods like beef and wheat, while the growth of domestic industry remained hindered by imports of cheap manufactured products. While international demand for Argentine agricultural goods was central to economic development, equally important was the inflow of foreign capital, particularly from Great Britain. At that time, Argentina received some of the highest levels of foreign investment in Latin America. In the midst of this economic expansion, the
Law 1420 of Common EducationThe Law 1420 of General Common Education of Argentina was a landmark national law that dictated public compulsory, free and secular education. It was passed in 1884 during the administration of President Julio Argentino Roca, after a number of similar laws of provincial scope and the conclusions of...
of 1884 guaranteed universal, free, non-religious education to all children.
In the late 19th century and early 20th Argentina temporary resolved its border disputes with Chile with the Puna de Atacama Lawsuit of 1899, the Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina and the 1902 General Treaty of Arbitration.
Roca's government and those that followed were aligned with the Argentine
oligarchyAn Oligarchy is a form of government in which power effectively rests with a small elite segment of society distinguished by royal, wealth, intellectual, family, military, or religious hegemony. The word oligarchy is from the Greek words for "few" and "rule"...
, especially the great land owners. In 1890, while Argentina was strongly affected by the
Long DepressionThe Long Depression was a worldwide economic crisis experienced in the latter half of the Victorian era, though there is some controversy over whether it should be labeled a depression or a series of recessions...
, members of the
Radical Civic UnionThe Radical Civic Union is a political party in Argentina. The party's positions on issues range from liberal to social democratic. The UCR is a member of the Socialist International. Founded in 1891 by radical liberals, it is the oldest political party in Argentina...
engaged themselves in the
Revolution of the ParkThe Revolution of the Park was an uprising against the national government of Argentina that took place in 1890 and started with the takeover of the Buenos Aires Artillery Park. It was led by members of the Civic Union against the presidency of Miguel Juárez Celman...
, a failed uprising against the presidency of Miguel Juárez Celman (
National Autonomist PartyThe National Autonomist Party was an Argentine political party during the 1874-1916 period. Created on March 15, 1874 by the union of the Autonomista Party of Adolfo Alsina and the National party of Nicolás Avellaneda...
). Though it failed in its main goals, the revolution forced Juárez Celman's resignation and marked the decline of the elite of the
Generation of '80The Generation of '80 was the governing elite in Argentina from 1880 to 1916. Members of the oligarchy of the provinces and the country's capital, they first joined the League of Governors , and then the National Autonomist Party...
.
In 1904,
Alfredo PalaciosNot to be confused with the President of Ecuador Alfredo Palacio.Alfredo Lorenzo Palacios was an Argentine socialist politician....
, a member of
Juan B. JustoJuan Bautista Justo was an Argentine physician, journalist, politician, and writer. After finishing medical school he joined the Unión Cívica Radical, later participating in the foundation of the Socialist Party in 1896, of which he was chief director until his death...
's
Socialist PartyThe Socialist Party is a social-democratic political party in Argentina. The history of socialism in Argentina began in the 1890s, when a group of people, notably Juan B...
(founded in 1896), became the first Socialist deputee of Argentina, as a representant of the workers' neighborhood
La BocaLa Boca is a neighborhood, or barrio of the Argentine capital, Buenos Aires. It retains a strong European flavour, with many of its early settlers being from the Italian city of Genoa. In fact the name has a strong assonance with the Genoese neighborhood of Boccadasse , and some people believe that...
of Buenos Aires. He helped create many laws including the Ley Palacios against sexual exploitation, and others regulating child and woman labor, working hours and Sunday rest.
In 1912, President
Roque Sáenz PeñaRoque Sáenz Peña Lahitte was President of Argentina from 12 October 1910 to 9 August 1914, when he died in office....
, one of the most progressive among the conservatives, established universal, secret and obligatory male suffrage with the
Law 8,871The Sáenz Peña Law was Law 8871 of Argentina, sanctioned by the National Congress on February 10 1912, which established the universal, secret and obligatory male suffrage though the creation of an electoral list...
.
Yrigoyen's administration and the Radicals
Conservative forces dominated Argentine politics until 1916, when the Radicals, led by
Hipólito YrigoyenJuan Hipólito del Sagrado Corazón de Jesús Irigoyen Alem was twice President of Argentina...
, won control of the government through the first national elections made at universal suffrage. 745,000 citizens were allowed to vote, on a total population of 7,5 millions (immigrants, which represented much of the population, were not allowed to vote), of which 400,000 abstained themselves. Yrigoyen, however, only obtained 45% of the votes, which did not allow him a majority in Parliament, where the conservatives remained the first force. Thus, on 80 draft laws proposed by the executive, only 26 were voted by the conservative majority. The moderate agricultural reform was refused by the Parliament, as well as a tax on interests and the creation of a Bank of the Republic (which was to have the missions of the current Central Bank).
Despite this conservative opposition, the
Radical Civic UnionThe Radical Civic Union is a political party in Argentina. The party's positions on issues range from liberal to social democratic. The UCR is a member of the Socialist International. Founded in 1891 by radical liberals, it is the oldest political party in Argentina...
(UCR), with their emphasis on fair elections and democratic institutions, opened their doors to Argentina's expanding middle class as well as to social groups previously excluded from power. Yrigoyen's policy was to "fix" the system, by enacting necessary reforms which would enable the agroindustrial export model to preserve itself. It alterned moderate social reforms with repression of the social movements. In 1918, an estudiantine movement started at the
University of CordobaThe term University of Cordoba could refer to the following:* National University of Cordoba* University of Cordoba * University of Cordoba...
, which eventually led to the University Reform, which quickly spread to the rest of America. In May '68, French students recalled the Cordoba movement.
The Tragic Week of January 1919, during which the
Argentine Regional Workers' FederationThe Argentine Regional Workers' Federation , founded in 1901, was Argentina's first national labor confederation...
(FORA, founded in 1901) had called for a general strike after a police shooting, ended up in 700 killed and 4,000 injured. General Luis Dellepiane marched on Buenos Aires to re-establish civil order. Despite being called for by some to initiate a coup against Yrigoyen, he remained loyal to the President, at the sole condition that the latter would allow him a free hand on the repression of the demonstrations. Social movements thereafter continued in the
Forestal British company, and in
PatagoniaPatagonia is a geographic region containing the southernmost portion of South America. Located in Argentina and Chile, it comprises the southernmost portion of the Andes mountains to the west and south, and plateaux and low plains to the east. The name Patagonia comes from the word patagón used by...
, where Hector Varela headed the military repression, assisted by the
Argentine Patriotic LeagueThe Argentine Patriotic League was a nationalist Catholic paramilitary group, officially created in Buenos Aires on January 16, 1919, during the Tragic Week events. Presided by Manuel Carlés, a professor at the Military College and the Escuela Superior de Guerra, it also counted among its members...
, killing 1,500.
On the other hand, Yrigoyen's administration enacted the Labor Code establishing the right to strike in 1921, implemented
minimum wageA minimum wage is the lowest hourly, daily or monthly wage that employers may legally pay to employees or workers. Equivalently, it is the lowest wage at which workers may sell their labor. Although minimum wage laws are in effect in a great many jurisdictions, there are differences of opinion...
s laws and collective contracts. It also initiated the creation of the
Dirección General de Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales (YPF), the oil state company, in June 1922. Radicalism rejected
class struggleClass struggle is the active expression of class conflict looked at from any kind of socialist perspective. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, leading ideologists of communism, wrote "The [written] history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle".Marx's notion of class has...
and vouched for social conciliation.
Meanwhile, the Radicals continued Argentina's neutrality policy during World War I, despite the United States' urge to push them into declaring war to the
Triple AllianceThe Triple Alliance was the military alliance among Germany, Austria–Hungary, and Italy that lasted from 1882 until the start of World War I in 1914. Each member promised mutual support in the event of an attack by any two other great powers, or for Germany and Italy, an attack by France alone...
. Neutrality enabled Argentina to export goods to Europe, in particular to Great Britain, as well as to issue credit to the belligerent powers. Germany sank two Argentine civilian ships,
Monte Protegido on April 4, 1917 and the
Toro, but the diplomatic incident only ended with the expulsion of the German ambassador, Karl von Luxburg. Yrigoyen organized a Conference of Neutral Powers in Buenos Aires, to oppose the United States' attempt to bring American states in the European war, and also supported Sandino's resistance in Nicaragua.
In September 1922, Yrigoyen's administration refused to follow the
cordon sanitaireCordon sanitaire is a French phrase that, literally translated, means quarantine line. Though in French it originally denoted a barrier implemented to stop the spread of disease, its use in English is almost always metaphorical and political, and refers to attempts to prevent the spread of an...
policy enacted against the Soviet Union, and, basing itself on the assistance given to Austria after the war, decided to send to the USSR a 5 millions pesos assistance.
The same year, Yrigoyen was replaced by his rival inside the UCR,
Marcelo Torcuato de AlvearMáximo Marcelo Torcuato de Alvear Pacheco , better known as Marcelo T. de Alvear was an Argentinian politician and President of Argentina from October 12 1922 to October 12 1928. He was the leader of the anti-personalistic faction of the centrist Radical Civic Union , opposed to Hipólito Yrigoyen...
, an aristocrat, who defeated
Norberto PiñeroNorberto Piñero was a prominent Argentine lawyer, writer and conservative politician.-Life and times:Norberto Piñero was born to a landed family in the Province of Buenos Aires, in 1858. He enrolled at the University of Buenos Aires and received a juris doctor in 1882...
's
Concentración Nacional (conservatives) with 458,457 votes against 200,080. Alvear brought to his cabinet personalities belonging to the traditional ruling classes, such as
José Nicolás MatienzoJosé Nicolás Matienzo was a prominent Argentine lawyer, writer, academic and policy maker.-Life and times:José Nicolás Matienzo was born in San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina, in 1860. He enrolled at the University of Buenos Aires Law School, where he was mentored by Professor José Manuel Estrada,...
at the Interior Ministry,
Ángel GallardoÁngel Gallardo is a Spanish professional golfer.Gallardo was a member of the European Tour from its first official season in 1972 until 1982. He finished in the top one hundred of the European Tour Order of Merit in each of those eleven seasons, with a best ranking of tenth in 1977...
at Foreign Relations, Agustín P. Justo at the War Ministry, Manuel Domecq García at the Marine and Rafael Herrera Vegas at the Haciendas. Alvera's supporters founded the
Unión Cívica Radical Antipersonalista, opposed to Yrigoyen's party.
During the early 1920s, the rise of the anarchist movement, fueled by the arrival of recent emigres and deportees from Europe, spawned a new generation of left-wing activism in Argentina. The new left, mostly anarchists and anarcho-communists, rejected the incremental progressivism of the old Radical and Socialist elements in Argentina in favor of immediate action. The extremists, such as
Severino Di GiovanniSeverino Di Giovanni , an Italian anarchist, moved to Argentina, where he became the best-known anarchist figure in that country for his violent acts in support of Sacco and Vanzetti and antifascism.- Italy :...
, openly espoused violence and '
propaganda by the deedPropaganda of the deed is a concept that promotes physical violence against political enemies as a way of inspiring the masses and catalyzing revolution. Propaganda of the deed may take many forms, but in many cases utilizes violence against people seen as threats to the working class...
'. A wave of bombings and shootouts with police culminated in an attempt to assassinate U.S. President
Herbert HooverHerbert Clark Hoover was the 31st President of the United States . Hoover was a professional mining engineer and author. As the United States Secretary of Commerce in the 1920s under Presidents Warren Harding and Calvin Coolidge, he promoted government intervention under the rubric "economic...
on his visit to Argentina in 1928.
In 1921, the counter-revolutionary
Logia General San Martín was founded, and diffused nationalist ideas in the military until its dissolution in 1926. Three years later, the
Liga Republicana (Republican League) was founded by Roberto de Laferrere, on the model of
Benito MussoliniBenito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini,
KSMOM GCTE was an Italian politician who led the National Fascist Party and is credited with being one of the key figures in the creation of Fascism. He became the Prime Minister of Italy in 1922 and began using the title Il Duce by...
's Black shirts in Italy. The Argentine Right found its major influences in the 19th century Spanish writer
Marcelino Menéndez y PelayoMarcelino Menéndez y Pelayo was a Spanish scholar, historian and literary critic. Even though his main interest was the History of ideas, and Hispanic philology in general, he also cultivated poetry, translation and philosophy.He was born at Santander where he showed that he was an infant prodigy...
and in the French royalist
Charles Maurras__FORCETOC__ Charles-Marie-Photius Maurras was a French author, poet, and critic. He was a leader and principal thinker of Action Française, a political movement that was monarchist, anti-parliamentarist, and counter-revolutionary, and is the main intellectual influence of National Catholicism...
. Also in 1922, the poet
Leopoldo LugonesLeopoldo Lugones Argüello was an Argentine writer and journalist.Born in Villa de María del Río Seco, the traditional city of the province of Córdoba, in Argentina's Catholic heartland, Lugones belonged to a family of landed gentry...
, who had turned towards
fascismFascism, , comprises a radical and authoritarian nationalist political ideology and a corporatist economic ideology developed in Italy. Fascists believe that nations and/or races are in perpetual conflict whereby only the strong can survive by being healthy, vital, and by asserting themselves in...
, made a famous speech in
LimaLima is the capital and largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers, on a coast overlooking the Pacific Ocean. It forms a contiguous urban area with the seaport of Callao...
, known as "the time of the sword", in presence of the War Minister and future dictator Agustín P. Justo, which called for a military coup and the establishment of a military dictatorship.
Yrigoyen was re-elected in 1928, defeating the Antipersonalistas' candidate,
Leopoldo MeloLeopoldo Melo was an Argentine lawyer, diplomat and politician. He was a member of the Radical Civic Union political party, and served as senator and Minister of Internal Affairs.-Biography:...
, who was also supported by the Confederation of the Right-wings, formed after a gathering organised by
Julio Argentino Roca, Jr.Julio Argentino Pascual Roca Funes was an Argentine politician and diplomat.He was born to General Julio Roca, who would become President of Argentina and dominate national politics for a generation after 1880, and the former Clara Funes...
.
The Infamous Decade of the 1930s
In 1929, Argentina had the world's 4th highest per capita GDP. These years of prosperity ended with the Crash of 1929 and the ensuing worldwide
Great DepressionThe Great Depression which followed the US stock market crash of 1929 impacted heavily on the countries of Latin America. Before the global Great Depression of the 1930s, links between the United States economy and Latin American economies had been established through US investment in Latin America...
. In 1930, a military coup, supported by the
Argentine Patriotic LeagueThe Argentine Patriotic League was a nationalist Catholic paramilitary group, officially created in Buenos Aires on January 16, 1919, during the Tragic Week events. Presided by Manuel Carlés, a professor at the Military College and the Escuela Superior de Guerra, it also counted among its members...
, forced Hipólito Yrigoyen from power, and replaced him by
José Félix UriburuGeneral José Félix Benito Uriburu y Uriburu was the first de facto President of Argentina, achieved through military force, from September 6 1930 to February 20 1932....
. Support for the coup was bolstered by the sagging Argentine economy as well as a string of bomb attacks and shootings involving radical anarchists, which alienated moderate elements of Argentine society and angered the conservative right, who had long been agitating for decisive action by the military forces.
The military coup initiated the period known as the "
Infamous DecadeThe Infamous Decade in Argentina is the name given to the period of time that started in 1930 with the coup d'état against President Hipólito Yrigoyen by José Félix Uriburu...
", characterised by
electoral fraudElectoral fraud is illegal interference with the process of an election. Acts of fraud affect vote counts to bring about a election result, whether by increasing the vote share of the favored candidate, depressing the vote share of the rival candidates or both...
, persecution of the
political oppositionIn politics, the opposition comprises one or more political parties or other organized groups that are opposed to the government, party or group in political control of an area, county, or state....
(mainly against the
UCRThe Radical Civic Union is a political party in Argentina. The party's positions on issues range from liberal to social democratic. The UCR is a member of the Socialist International. Founded in 1891 by radical liberals, it is the oldest political party in Argentina...
) and generalised government corruption, against the background of the
Great DepressionThe Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression in the decade preceding World War II. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, but in most countries it started in about 1929 and lasted until the late 1930s or early 1940s...
.
The
Roca-Runciman TreatyThe Roca-Runciman Treaty was a commercial agreement between Argentina and Great Britain signed by the Vice President of Argentina, Julio Argentino Roca, Jr., and the president of the British Board of Trade, Sir Walter Runciman, the British envoy....
passed between Argentina and Great Britain, which greatly favoured the British economy, was strongly denounced by the leftist FORJA, headed by
Arturo JauretcheArturo Martín Jauretche was an Argentine writer, politician, and philosopher.-Early years:...
and other opponents to Marcelo Alvear's decision, in 1934, to end with the UCR's absentionist stance towards
Agustín Pedro JustoGeneral Agustín Pedro Justo Rolón was President of Argentina from February 20 1932 to February 20 1938...
's military regime (1932-1938).
The collapse of international trade led to industrial growth focused on
import substitutionImport substitution industrialization is a trade and economic policy based on the premise that a country should attempt to reduce its foreign dependency through the local production of industrialized products...
, leading to a stronger economic independence. At the same time, increasing political conflict arose, with confrontation between right-wing
fascistFascism, , comprises a radical and authoritarian nationalist political ideology and a corporatist economic ideology developed in Italy. Fascists believe that nations and/or races are in perpetual conflict whereby only the strong can survive by being healthy, vital, and by asserting themselves in...
s and leftist radicals, with military-oriented conservatives controlling the government. Though many claimed the polls to be fraudulent,
Roberto OrtizRoberto Ortiz can refer to:*Roberto María Ortiz , President of Argentina *Roberto Ortiz , Major League Baseball outfielder...
was elected president in 1937 and took office the next year, but due to his fragile health he was followed (de-facto in 1940; de-jure in 1942) by his vice-president
Ramón CastilloRamón S. Castillo Barrionuevo was a conservative Argentine politician who served as President of Argentina from June 27 1942 to June 4 1943...
.
World War II
The civilian government appeared to be close to joining the allies, but many officers of the Argentine armed forces (and ordinary Argentine citizens) objected due to fear of the spread of communism. This was a major factor contributing to the military coup of 1943.
Due to a particularly high proportion of Italian origin, Argentina has had strong links with Italy for a long time. Italy had been run by Mussolini since the nineteen-twenties. As a result, Argentines were more in touch with anti-Communist propaganda and were kept more aware of persecutions and atrocities in the Soviet Union. This resulted in a much more anti-communist public opinion than in other Latin American countries. Many Argentines were therefore concerned about joining the allies, who supported Stalin in order to fight Hitler. German intelligence cells operating in Argentina succeeded in infiltrating the army officer corps and nurturing sympathy towards the axis powers.
After the 1943 coup, Pedro Pablo Ramírez Machuca became dictator. He had been attached to the Kaiser's army 1911-13, had a German wife, and had later been attached to Mussolini's army 1930-2. Ramirez sympathised with the axis powers but did not declare war. Argentina's largest neighbour, Brazil, had already entered the war on the allied side in 1942.
In 1944 Ramirez was replaced by Edelmiro Farrell, an army officer of Irish-Argentine origin who had spent two years attached to Mussolini's army in the twenties. Initially his government continued to maintain a neutral policy. Towards the end of the war, Farrell decided it was in the interests of Argentina to be attached to the winning side. Like several Latin American states, Argentina made a late declaration of war against Germany with no intention of providing any military forces.
During
World War IIWorld War II, or the Second World War , was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including all great powers, organized into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, 4,000 Argentines went abroad to volunteer for the
British armed forcesThe armed forces of the United Kingdom, known as His/Her Majesty's Armed Forces or sometimes the British Armed Forces, and sometimes legally the Armed Forces of the Crown, encompasses a navy, an army, and an air force...
and Canadian armed forces. Over 600 Argentine volunteers served with both the
Royal Air ForceThe Royal Air Force is the United Kingdom's air force, the oldest independent air force in the world. Formed on 1 April 1918, the RAF has taken a significant role in British military history ever since, playing a large part in World War II and in more recent conflicts.The RAF operates almost 1,109...
and the Canadian Air Force, mostly in the
164 Argentine-British RAF squadronNo. 164 Squadron of the Royal Air Force was a fighter squadron during the Second World War composed of Argentine volunteers.-Background:No. 164 Squadron RAF was originally founded on 1 June 1918, but never received aircraft and was disbanded on 4 July 1918...
. Many but not all were from the Anglo-Argentine community. Many members of the Anglo-Argentine community also volunteered in non-combat roles, or worked to raise money and supplies for British troops.
Before the war, Argentina had been a popular destination for Jewish refugees. Argentina is now one of the countries with the highest Jewish populations.
At the end of the war many Nazis were able to escape to Argentina and disappear into the population with false identities. In 1945, thousands of blank passports were sent to Germany to allow the entry of Germans wishing to avoid capture.
The rise of Juan and Eva Perón (1945-1955)
In 1946, general
Juan PerónJuan Domingo Perón was an Argentine general and politician, elected three times as President of Argentina, after serving in several government positions, including the Secretary of Labor and the Vice Presidency. He was overthrown in a military coup in 1955...
became president, with ideology which was dubbed as
peronismPeronism , or Justicialism , is an Argentine political movement based on the ideas and programs associated with former President Juan Perón and his second wife, Eva Perón, referred to as Spiritual Leader of the Nation of Argentina...
. His popular wife
Eva PerónMaría Eva Duarte de Perón was the second wife of President Juan Domingo Perón and served as the First Lady of Argentina from 1946 until her death in 1952...
played a political role until her death in 1952. Perón established censorship by closing down 110 publications between 1943 and 1946. During Juan Perón's rule, the number of unionized workers and government programs increased. In foreign policy, Perón had isolationist beliefs that the political and economic influences of other nations should be kept out of Argentina. Perón expanded government spending. The peso lost about 70% of its value from early 1948 to early 1950; inflation reached 50% in 1951. Opposition members were imprisoned and tortured. Juan Perón rid himself of many important and capable advisers, while promoting patronage. A coup (
Revolución LibertadoraThe Revolución Libertadora was a military uprising that ended the second presidential term of Juan Perón in Argentina, on September 16, 1955....
) led by
Eduardo LonardiEduardo A. Lonardi Doucet was a former de facto president of Argentina who was in office from September 23 till November 13 of 1955....
deposed him in 1955. He went into
exileExile means to be away from one's home , while either being explicitly refused permission to return and/or being threatened by prison or death upon return...
, eventually settling in
Francoist SpainFrancisco Franco became the dictator of Spain when he defeated the Republican government in the Spanish Civil War. Franco declared an official end of hostilities on April 1, 1939, and reworked the name of the republic into the “Spanish State,” a new moniker attempting to distinguish the new regime...
.
The Revolución Libertadora, a Catholic nationalist putsch (1955-1958)
In Argentina, the 1950s and 1960s were marked by frequent coups d'état, low economic growth in the 1950s and high growth rates in the 1960s. Argentina faced problems of continued social and labor demands. Argentine painter
Antonio BerniDelesio Antonio Berni was a figurative artist, born in Rosario, province of Santa Fe, Argentina. He worked as a painter, an illustrator and an engraver. His father, Napoleón Berni, was an immigrant tailor from Italy...
's works reflected the social tragedies of these times, painting in particular life in the
villas miseria (shanty towns).
Following the
Revolución LibertadoraThe Revolución Libertadora was a military uprising that ended the second presidential term of Juan Perón in Argentina, on September 16, 1955....
military coup,
Eduardo LonardiEduardo A. Lonardi Doucet was a former de facto president of Argentina who was in office from September 23 till November 13 of 1955....
held power only briefly and was succeeded by Pedro Aramburu, president from November 13, 1955 to May 1, 1958. In June 1956, two Peronist generals,
Juan José ValleJuan José Valle was an Argentine military who headed a rebellion against General Aramburu's dictatorship in 1956 , which had put an end the year before to Juan Perón's second term of presidency.After Aramburu's coup against Perón, José Valle was dismissed in the frame of the...
and Raul Tanco, attempted a coup against Aramburu, criticizing an important purge in the army, the abrogation of social reforms and persecution against trade-union leaders. They also demanded liberation of all political and labor activists and the return to the constitutional order. The uprising was quickly crushed: General Valle and other members of the military were executed, and twenty civilians were arrested at their homes and their bodies thrown in the León Suarez dumping ground.
Along with the
June 1955 Casa Rosada bombingThe bombing of Plaza de Mayo is an event in Argentine history.On June 16, 1955, starting at 12:40 PM, a force of aircraft from the Argentine Air Force strafed and bombed Plaza de Mayo, in what remains to this day the only air assault ever on the Argentine mainland. The attack targeted the square as...
on the
Plaza de MayoThe Plaza de Mayo is the main square in downtown Buenos Aires, Argentina. It is located at and it is flanked by Hipólito Yrigoyen, Balcarce, Rivadavia and Bolívar streets....
, the León Suarez massacre is one of the important events that started a cycle of violence. Pedro Aramburu was later kidnapped and executed for this massacre, in 1970, by Fernando Abal Medina, Emilio Angel Maza, Mario Firmenich and others, who would later form the
MontonerosThe Montonero Peronist Movement was an Argentine left-wing Peronist guerrilla group, active during the 1960s and 1970s. Its motto was venceremos...
movement.
In 1956, special elections were held to reform the constitution. The Radical Party under
Ricardo BalbínRicardo Balbín was an Argentine lawyer and politician, and one of the most important figures of the centrist Radical Civic Union , for which he was the presidential nominee four times: in 1951, 1958, and twice in 1973.-Life and times:Ricardo Balbín was born to Encarnación Morales Balbín and Cipriano...
won a majority, although 25% of all ballots were turned in blank as a protest by the banned Peronist party. Also in support of Peronism, the left wing of the Radical Party, led by
Arturo FrondiziArturo Frondizi was the President of Argentina between 1 May 1958 and 29 March 1962 for the Intransigent Radical Civic Union.-Biography:...
, left the Constitutional Assembly. The Assembly was severely damaged by that defection and was only able to restore the Constitution of 1853 with the sole addition of the Article 14
bis, which enumerated some social rights.
Presidency of Frondizi (1958-1962)
Frondizi, UCRI's candidate, won the presidential elections of 1958, obtaining approximately 4,000,000 votes against 2,500,000 for Ricardo Balbín (with 800,000 neutral votes). From
CaracasCaracas is the capital and largest city of Venezuela. It is located in the north of the country, following the contours of the narrow Caracas Valley on the Venezuelan coastal mountain range . The valley's temperatures are springlike. Terrain suitable for building lies between 760 and 910 m above...
, Peron supported Frondizi and called upon his supporters to vote for him, as a means toward the end of prohibition of the Peronist movement and the re-establishment of the workers' social legislation voted during Peron's leadership.
On one hand, Frondizi appointed
Álvaro AlsogarayÁlvaro Carlos Alsogaray was an Argentine politician. Minister of Economy nominated in 1958 by Arturo Frondizi, he was one of the principal proponents of economic liberalism in modern Argentina.He was a member of the Alsogaray military dynasty, and retired from the military with the rank of captain...
as Minister of Economy to placate powerful agrarian interests and other conservatives. A member of the powerful military dynasty
AlsogarayAlsogaray is a Basque surname. A branch of the family emigrated to South America in the early 19th century, and sustained a military tradition for several generations...
, Álvaro, who had already been Minister of Industry under
AramburuPedro Eugenio Aramburu Cilveti Army General. Born in Río Cuarto, Córdoba on May 21, 1903. He was a major force behind the military coup against Juan Perón in 1955. He became president of Argentina from November 13, 1955 to May 1, 1958...
's military rule, devalued the peso and imposed credit control.
On the other hand, Frondizi followed a laic program, which rose concerns among the Catholic nationalist forces, leading to the organization, between 1960 and 1962, of the far-right
Tacuara Nationalist MovementThe Movimiento Nacionalista Tacuara was an Argentine far right group in the 1960s, which, after having violently opposed Peronism, later integrated Juan Perón's right-wing “Special Formations”...
.
The Tacuara, the "first urban guerrilla group in Argentina", engaged in several anti-semitic bombings, in particular following
Adolf EichmannOtto Adolf Eichmann , sometimes referred to as "the architect of the Holocaust", was a Nazi and SS-Obersturmbannführer...
's sequestration by the
MOSSADThe Mossad is the national intelligence agency of Israel. "Mossad" is the Hebrew word for institute or institution....
in 1960. During the visit of Dwight Eisenhower to Argentina, in February 1962 (Eisenhower had been until 1961 President of the United States), the Tacuara headed nationalist demonstrations against him, leading to the imprisonment of several of their leaders, among whom Joe Baxter.
1962 coup and Guido's interim
However, Frondizi's government ended in 1962 with intervention yet again by the military, after a series of local elections were won by the Peronist candidates.
José María GuidoJosé María Guido was de facto President of Argentina from 30 March 1962 to 12 October 1963.Guido was elected to the Argentine Senate for Río Negro Province in 1958, representing the Intransigent Radical Civic Union...
, chairman of the senate, claimed the presidency on constitutional grounds before the deeply divided Armed Forces were able to agree on a name.
Presidency of Illia (1963-1966)
In new elections in 1963, neither Peronists nor Communists were allowed to participate. Arturo Illia of the Radical People's Party won these elections; regional elections and by-elections over the next few years favored Peronists.
On the other hand, the Tacuara were outlawed by Illia in 1965, some of its members ultimately turning to the Peronist Left (such as Joe Baxter) while other remained on their far-right positions (such as Alberto Ezcurra Uriburu, who would work with the Triple A).
The military dictatorship (from Onganía to Lanusse, 1966-1973)
Along with worker unrest, this led to another coup in June 1966, misnamed as the
Revolución Argentina, which established General
Juan Carlos OnganíaJuan Carlos Onganía Carballo was a military president of Argentina from 29 June 1966 to 8 June 1970. He rose to power as military dictator after toppling, in a coup d’état self-named Revolución Argentina , the democratically elected president Arturo Illia .-Economic and social policies:While...
as
de facto president, supported by several leaders of the
General Confederation of LabourThe General Confederation of Labour of the Argentine Republic is a national trade union center of Argentina founded on September 27, 1930 as the result of the merge of the USA and the COA trade union centers...
(CGT), among whom the general secretary
Augusto VandorAugusto Timoteo Vandor , alias "El Lobo" was an Argentine trade unionist leader and politician....
. This led to a series of military-appointed presidents.
While preceding military coups were aimed at establishing temporary, transitional
juntaA military dictatorship is a form of government wherein the political power resides with the military. It is similar but not identical to a stratocracy, a state ruled directly by the military....
s, the
Revolución Argentina headed by Onganía aimed at establishing a new political and social order, opposed both to
liberal democracyLiberal democracy is the dominant form of democracy in the 21st century. During the Cold War, liberal democracies were contrasted with the Communist People's Republics or "Popular Democracies", which claimed an alternative conception of democracy...
and
CommunismCommunism is a socioeconomic structure and political ideology that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless society based on common ownership and control of the means of production and property in general. Karl Marx posited that communism would be the final stage in human...
, which gave to the Armed Forces of Argentina a leading, political role in the economic rationalization of the country. The political scientist
Guillermo O'DonnellGuillermo O'Donnell, born in 1936 in Argentina, is a prominent Argentine political scientist, and Helen Kellogg Professor of Government and International Studies at the University of Notre Dame. His brother Pacho O'Donnell is a well-known politician and writer....
named this type of regime "authoritarian-bureaucratic state", in reference both to the
Revolución Argentina, the Brazilian military regime (1964-1985),
Augusto PinochetAugusto José Ramón Pinochet Ugarte was a Chilean army general and later head of state as president. He was the Commander in Chief of the Chilean army from 1973 to 1998, president of the Government Junta of Chile from 1973 to 1981 and President of the Republic from 1974 until the return of...
's regime (starting in 1973) and
Juan María BordaberryJuan María Bordaberry Arocena is a Uruguayan statesman and cattle rancher, who served as President from 1972 to 1976.He came to office following the Presidential elections of late 1971....
's regime in
UruguayThis is about the history of Uruguay. See also the History of South America.-Pre-Columbian times and colonization:The only documented inhabitants of Uruguay before European colonization of the area were the Charrua, a small tribe driven south by the Guaraní of Paraguay...
.
Onganía's Minister of Economy, Adalbert Krieger Vasena, decreed a freeze of wages' increase and a 40% devaluation, which strongly affected the
state of the Argentine economyArgentina benefits from rich natural resources, a highly literate population, an export-oriented agricultural sector and a diversified industrial base. Historically, however, Argentina's economic performance has been very uneven, in which high economic growth alternated with severe recessions,...
, in particular of the agricultural sector, favorizing foreign capital. Vasena suspended
collective labour conventionsIn organized labor, collective bargaining is the method whereby workers organize together to meet, converse, and negotiate upon the work conditions with their employers normally resulting in a written contract setting forth the wages, hours, and other conditions to be observed for a stipulated...
, reformed the hydrocarburs law which had established a partial monopoly of the
Yacimientos Petrolíferos FiscalesYacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales was an Argentine state-owned oil company. Founded in 1922 under Hipólito Yrigoyen's administration, it was privatized in 1991 by Carlos Menem, and bought back by the Spanish firm Repsol, the result of the merger taking the name of Repsol YPF...
(YPF) state enterprise, as well as passing a law facilitating expulsions in case of fault of payment of rent. Finally, the right to strike was suspended (Law 16,936) and several other laws reversed progress made concerning labor laws through-out the preceding years.
The workers' movement divided itself between Vandoristas, who supported a "Peronism without Peron" line (Vandor declared that "to save Perón, one has to be against Perón") and advocated negotiation with the junta, and Peronists, themselves divided.
In July 1966, Onganía ordered the violent dislodge of five faculties of the Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA) in
ArgentinaArgentina, officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America, constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires. It is the eighth largest country in the world by land area and the largest among Spanish-speaking nations, though Mexico,...
on July 29, 1966 by the
Federal PoliceThe Policía Federal Argentina is a police force of the Argentine federal government. The PFA has detachments throughout the country, but its main responsibilty is policing the 3 million population of the Federal District of Buenos AIres...
, an event known as
La Noche de los Bastones LargosLa Noche de los Bastones Largos was the violent dislodge of five faculties of the Universidad de Buenos Aires in Argentina on July 29 1966 by the Federal Police...
("The Night of the Long Police Sticks"). The faculties had been taken by the students, professors and graduates (members of the autonomous government of the university) who opposed the military government's measure of intervening the universities and revoke the regime of the
1918 university reformThe Argentine university reform of 1918 was a general modernisation of the universities, especially tending towards democratisation, brought about by student activism...
. The university repression led to the exile of 301 university professors, among whom
Manuel SadoskyManuel Sadosky was an Argentine mathematician, born in Buenos Aires to Jewish Russian immigrants fleeing the pogroms. He is widely considered the father of computer science studies in Argentina....
,
Tulio Halperín DonghiTulio Halperín Donghi is an Argentine historian.Halperín Donghi was born in Buenos Aires, in 1926. He received both a juris doctor and a Doctorate in History from the University of Buenos Aires, in 1955. Halperín Donghi has since become among Latin America's most renowned historians...
, Sergio Bagú and Risieri Frondizi.
End of May 1968, General Julio Alsogaray dissented from Onganía, and rumors spread about a possible coup d'état, Algosaray leading the conservative opposition to Onganía. Finally, at the end of the month, Onganía dismissed the leaders of the Armed Forces: Alejandro Lanusse replaced Julio Alsogaray, Pedro Gnavi replaced Benigno Varela, and Jorge Martínez Zuviría replaced Adolfo Alvarez.
On 19 September 1968, two important events affected Revolutionary Peronism. On one hand, John William Cooke, former personal delegate of Perón and ideologist of the Peronist Left, as well as a friend of
Fidel CastroFidel Alejandro Castro Ruz is a Cuban politician, one of the primary leaders of the Cuban Revolution, the Prime Minister of Cuba from February 1959 to December 1976, and then the President of the Council of State of Cuba until his resignation from the office in February 2008...
, died from natural causes. On the other hand, a small group (13 men and one woman) who aimed at establishing a
focoThe foco theory of revolution by way of guerrilla warfare, also known as focalism , was inspired by Marxist revolutionary Ernesto "Che" Guevara, based upon his experiences surrounding the rebel army's victory in the 1959 Cuban Revolution, and formalized as such by Régis Debray...
in
Tucuman ProvinceFor the city of Tucumán, capital of the province, see: San Miguel de TucumánTucumán is the most densely populated, and the smallest by land area, of the provinces of Argentina, located in the northwest of the country. The capital is San Miguel de Tucumán, often shortened to Tucumán. Neighboring...
, in order to head the resistance against the junta, was captured. Among them, Envar El Kadre, then a leader of the Peronist Youth.
In 1969, the
CGT de los Argentinos (CGTA, headed by the graphist
Raimundo Ongaro-Early career and rise to prominence:Raimundo José Ongaro was born to a middle-class family of Italian Argentines from the Lombardy region, in the Argentine seashore city of Mar del Plata in 1924. Fluent in Latin and schooled in music composition, Ongaro became an apprenticed graphist and was...
) headed social movements, in particular the
CordobazoThe Cordobazo was a civil uprising in the city of Córdoba, Argentina, in the end of May 1969, during the military dictatorship of General Juan Carlos Onganía, which occurred a few days after the Rosariazo, and a year after the French May '68...
, as well as other movements in Tucuman and
Santa FeSanta Fe is the capital city of province of Santa Fe, Argentina. It sits in northeastern Argentina, near the junction of the Paraná and Salado rivers. It lies opposite the city of Paraná, to which it is linked by the Hernandarias Subfluvial Tunnel. The city is also connected by canal with the...
. While Perón managed a reconciliation with
Augusto VandorAugusto Timoteo Vandor , alias "El Lobo" was an Argentine trade unionist leader and politician....
, head of the CGT Azopardo, he followed, in particular through the voice of his delegate Jorge Paladino, a cautious line of opposition to the military junta, criticizing with moderation the neoliberal policies of the junta but waiting for discontent inside the government ("
hay que desencillar hasta que aclare", said Perón, advocating patience). Thus, Onganía had an interview with 46 CGT delegates, among whom Vandor, who agreed on "participationism" with the military junta, thus uniting themselves with the
Nueva Corriente de Opinión headed by
José AlonsoJosé Alonso was an Argentine politician and trade-unionist.- Early life :José Alonso was the son of a Spanish tailor, and dedicated himself to the same profession. He was first elected syndicalist representant of the tailors in 1938. Alonso supported at first socialism and Alfredo L...
and Rogelio Coria.
In December 1969, more than 20 priests, members of the
Movimiento de Sacerdotes para el Tercer Mundo (MSTM, Movement of Priests for the Third World), marched on the
Casa RosadaLa Casa Rosada , officially known as the Casa de Gobierno or Palacio Presidencial , is the official seat of the executive branch of the Government of Argentina .The Casa Rosada sits at the...
to present to Onganía a petition pleading him to abandon the eradication plan of
villas miserias (shanty towns).
Meanwhile, Onganía implemented
corporatismCorporatism is a system of economic, political, and social organization where corporate groups such as business, ethnic, farmer, labour, military, patronage, or religious groups are joined together into a single governing body in which the different groups are mandated to negotiate with each other...
policies, experimenting in particular in Cordoba, underneath
Carlos CaballeroCarlos José Caballero was de facto Federal Interventor of Córdoba, Argentina from September 13, 1966 to June 16, 1969....
's governance. The same year, the Movement of Priests for the Third World issued a declaration supporting Socialist revolutionary movements, which lead to the
Catholic hierarchyThe Catholic Church in Argentina is part of the worldwide Roman Catholic Church, under the spiritual leadership of the Pope, the Curia in Rome, and the Argentine Episcopal Conference....
, by the voice of Juan Carlos Aramburu, coadjutor archbishop of Buenos Aires, to proscribe priests from making political or social declarations.
Various armed actions, headed by the
Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación (FAL), composed by former members of the Revolutionary Communist Party, occurred in April 1969, leading to several arrests among FAL members. These were the first left-wing urban guerrilla actions in Argentina. Beside these isolated actions, the
CordobazoThe Cordobazo was a civil uprising in the city of Córdoba, Argentina, in the end of May 1969, during the military dictatorship of General Juan Carlos Onganía, which occurred a few days after the Rosariazo, and a year after the French May '68...
uprising of 1969, called forth by the CGT de los Argentinos, and its Cordobese leader,
Agustín ToscoAgustín Gringo Tosco was an Argentine union leader, member of the CGT de los Argentinos and an important participant in the historic local uprising known as the Cordobazo....
, prompted demonstrations in the entire country. The same year, the
People's Revolutionary ArmyThe Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo was the military branch of the communist PRT in Argentina...
(ERP) was formed as the military branch of the Trotskyist
Workers' Revolutionary PartyThere are several groups named the Workers' Revolutionary Party:*Workers' Revolutionary Party *Workers Revolutionary Party *Workers Revolutionary Party *Workers' Revolutionary Party *Workers Revolutionary Party...
, kidnapping and killing Argentinians.
The last of the military presidents
de facto, Alejandro Lanusse, was appointed in 1971 and attempted to re-establish democracy amidst an atmosphere of continuing Peronist worker protests.
Juan and Isabel Perón return from exile
On March 11, 1973, Argentina held general elections for the first time in ten years. Perón was prevented from running, but voters elected his stand-in, Dr. Hector Cámpora, as President. Cámpora defeated his
Radical Civic UnionThe Radical Civic Union is a political party in Argentina. The party's positions on issues range from liberal to social democratic. The UCR is a member of the Socialist International. Founded in 1891 by radical liberals, it is the oldest political party in Argentina...
opponent. Cámpora acceded to his functions on May 25, which was saluted by a massive popular gathering of the Peronist Youth movement,
MontonerosThe Montonero Peronist Movement was an Argentine left-wing Peronist guerrilla group, active during the 1960s and 1970s. Its motto was venceremos...
, FAR and FAP (
Fuerzas Armadas Peronistas) in the
Plaza de MayoThe Plaza de Mayo is the main square in downtown Buenos Aires, Argentina. It is located at and it is flanked by Hipólito Yrigoyen, Balcarce, Rivadavia and Bolívar streets....
. Cámpora assumed a strong stance against right-wing Peronists, declaring during his first speech:
La sangre derramada no será negociada ("Spilled blood will not be negotiated").
CubaThe Republic of Cuba is an island country in the Caribbean. It consists of the island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos. Havana is the largest city in Cuba and the country's capital. Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city. Cuba is home to over 11 million people and is...
n president
Osvaldo DorticósOsvaldo Dorticós Torrado was a Cuban politician who served as the 21st President of Cuba from July 17 1959 until December 2 1976.-Background:...
and
ChileChile, officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
an president
Salvador AllendeSalvador Isabelino Allende Gossens was a physician and the first democratically elected Marxist socialist to become president of a state in the Americas....
were present at his inauguration, while
William P. RogersWilliam Pierce Rogers was an American politician, who served as a Cabinet officer in the administrations of two U.S. Presidents in the third quarter of the 20th century.-Biography:...
, U.S. Secretary of State, and Uruguayan president
Juan BordaberryJuan María Bordaberry Arocena is a Uruguayan statesman and cattle rancher, who served as President from 1972 to 1976.He came to office following the Presidential elections of late 1971....
, could not attend, blocked in their car by demonstrators. Political prisoners were liberated on the same day, under the pressure of the demonstrators. Cámpora's government included progressive figures such as Interior Minister Esteban Righi and Education Minister Jorge Taina, but also included members of the labor and political right-wing Peronist factions, such as
José López RegaJosé López Rega was Argentina's Minister of Social Welfare during the Peronist government started in 1973 by Juan Perón and continued after Perón's death in 1974 by his third wife and vice-president, Isabel Martínez de Perón , until the coup d'etat of 1976 that initiated the so-called National...
, Perón's personal secretary and Minister of Social Welfare, and a member of the
P2 Masonic lodgePropaganda Due , or P2, was a Masonic lodge operating under the jurisdiction of the Grand Orient of Italy from 1945 to 1976 , and a pseudo-Masonic or "black" or "covert" lodge operating illegally from...
. Perón's followers also commanded strong majorities in both houses of Congress.
Hector Cámpora's government followed a traditional Peronist economic policy, supporting the national market and redistributing wealth. One of José Ber Gelbard's first measures as minister of economics was to augment workers' wages. However, the
1973 oil crisisThe 1973 oil crisis started in October 1973, when the members of Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries or the OAPEC proclaimed an oil embargo" in response to the U.S. decision to re-supply the Israeli military" during the Yom Kippur war; it lasted until March 1974...
seriously affected Argentina's oil-dependent economy. Almost 600 social conflicts, strikes or occupations occurred in Cámpora's first month.
Amidst escalating terror from right and left alike, Perón decided to return and assume the presidency. On June 20, 1973, two million people waited for him at Ezeiza airport. From Perón's speaking platform, camouflaged far-right gunmen, some of them from the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance (
Triple A, founded by José López Rega), fired on the masses, shooting at the Peronist Youth movement and the
MontonerosThe Montonero Peronist Movement was an Argentine left-wing Peronist guerrilla group, active during the 1960s and 1970s. Its motto was venceremos...
, killing at least thirteen and injuring more than three hundred (this became known as the
Ezeiza massacreThe Ezeiza massacre took place on June 20, 1973 near the Ezeiza International Airport in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Peronist masses, including many young people, had gathered there to acclaim Juan Perón's definitive return from an 18-year exile in Spain. The police counted three and a half million...
). Cámpora and vice-president Solano Lima resigned on July 13. Deputy
Raúl Alberto LastiriRaúl Alberto Lastiri was an Argentine politician who was interim president of Argentina from July 13 1973 until October 12 1973. Lastiri, who presided over the Argentine Chamber of Deputies was promoted to the Presidency of the country after Héctor Cámpora and Vicente Solano Lima resigned...
, José López Rega's son-in-law and also a
P2 memberPropaganda Due , or P2, was a Masonic lodge operating under the jurisdiction of the Grand Orient of Italy from 1945 to 1976 , and a pseudo-Masonic or "black" or "covert" lodge operating illegally from...
, was then promoted to the Presidency to organize elections. Cámpora's followers such as Chancellor Juan Carlos Puig and Interior Minister Esteban Righi were immediately replaced by Alberto J. Vignes and Benito Llambi, and the
Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo'The Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo was the military branch of the communist PRT in Argentina...
(ERP - People's Revolutionary Army) declared a "dissolved terrorist organization". On September 23, Perón won the elections with 61.85% of the votes, with his third wife, María Estela Isabel Martínez de Perón, as vice-president.
Peronist right-wing factions won a decisive victory and Perón assumed the Presidency in October 1973, a month after
PinochetAugusto José Ramón Pinochet Ugarte was a Chilean army general and later head of state as president. He was the Commander in Chief of the Chilean army from 1973 to 1998, president of the Government Junta of Chile from 1973 to 1981 and President of the Republic from 1974 until the return of...
's coup in Chile. Violent acts, including by the Triple A, continued to threaten public order. On September 25, José Ignacio Rucci,
CGT trade-unionThe General Confederation of Labour of the Argentine Republic is a national trade union center of Argentina founded on September 27, 1930 as the result of the merge of the USA and the COA trade union centers...
's Secretary General and one of Perón's friend, was assassinated, allegedly by the Montoneros. The government resorted to a number of emergency decrees, including the implementation of special executive authority to deal with violence. This allowed the government to imprison persons indefinitely without charge.
Perón died on July 1, 1974. His wife succeeded him in office, but her administration was undermined by economic downfall (inflation was skyrocketing and GDP contracted), Peronist intra-party struggles, and growing acts of terrorism by
insurgentsAn insurgency is an armed rebellion against a constituted authority when those taking part in the rebellion are not recognised as belligerents.[Oxford English Dictionary second edition 1989 "insurgent B. n...]
such as the ERP and paramilitary movements. Montoneros, led by Mario Firmenich, cautiously decided to go underground after Peron's death. Isabel Perón was removed from office by the military coup on March 24, 1976.
The Dirty War
Following the coup against Isabel Perón, the armed forces formally exercised power through a junta led consecutively by
VidelaJorge Rafael Videla Redondo was the 43rd President of Argentina from 1976 to 1981. He came to power in a coup d'état that deposed Isabel Martínez de Perón...
,
ViolaRoberto Eduardo Viola was a military officer who briefly served as president of Argentina from March 29 to December 11, 1981 during a period of military rule....
, Galtieri and
BignoneReynaldo Benito Bignone is a retired general who served as dictatorial President of Argentina from July 1, 1982 to December 10, 1983. As of 2009, he is under house arrest for crimes during the Dirty War. -Early career:...
until December 10, 1983. These de facto leaders termed their government programme "
National Reorganization ProcessThe National Reorganization Process was the name used by its leaders for the military government that ruled Argentina from 1976 to 1983 The National Reorganization Process (in Spanish, Proceso de Reorganización Nacional, often simply El Proceso) was the name used by its leaders for the military...
".
In the late 1960s and the early 1970s, Marxist-Leninist militias such as
People's Revolutionary ArmyThe Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo was the military branch of the communist PRT in Argentina...
kidnapped and murdered people almost weekly. Everywhere they could, they bombed and burned businesses, and shot policemen. Using the kidnapping, bombing and assassination tactics adopted by the
MontonerosThe Montonero Peronist Movement was an Argentine left-wing Peronist guerrilla group, active during the 1960s and 1970s. Its motto was venceremos...
and Trotskyist
Ejército Revolucionario del PuebloEjército Revolucionario del Pueblo or Ejército Popular Revolucionario may refers to:* People's Revolutionary Army * People's Revolutionary Army * People's Revolutionary Army...
(People's Revolutionary Army or ERP) as justification, the armed forces, among them the
Batallón de Inteligencia 601The Batallón de Inteligencia 601 was a special military intelligence service of the Argentine Army active in the Dirty War and Operation Condor. It was under the orders of Guillermo Suárez Mason and ultimately reported to junta leader Leopoldo Galtieri...
and
SIDESecretaría de Inteligencia is the premier intelligence agency of the Argentine Republic and head of its National Intelligence System....
, applied harsh measures against suspects. The "ideological war" doctrine of the Argentine military focused on eliminating the social base of insurgency. In practice that meant liquidating many middle class students, intellectuals and labor organizers, most of whom had few ties to the guerrillas. By the end of the 1970s, such tactics had suppressed the insurgents, but Argentina suffered terribly from the ends-justifies-the-means attitude adopted by the military (see also Theory of the two demons).
The costs of what the armed forces called the "Dirty War" were high in terms of lives lost and basic human rights violated. About 1,500 deaths may be attributed to various guerrilla attacks and assassinations. The 1984
Commission on the DisappearedThe National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons was an Argentine organization created by President Raúl Alfonsín on 15 December 1983, shortly after his inauguration, to investigate the fate of the desaparecidos and other human rights violations performed during the military dictatorship...
documented the disappearance and probable death at the hands of the military regime of about 11,000 people, relatively few of whom were likely Montonero or ERP cadres. Human rights groups estimate that over 30,000 persons became "
disappearedA forced disappearance occurs when force is used to cause a person to vanish from public view, followed by a refusal to acknowledge the deprivation of liberty , thereby placing the victim outside the protection of law.According to the Rome Statute of the International...
" (i. e. arrested and secretly executed without trial) during the 1976–1983 period; Still, others went into exile. The People's Revolutionary Army alone admitted it lost 5,000 militants.
Serious economic problems, mounting charges of corruption, public discontent and, finally, the country's 1982 defeat by the United Kingdom in the
Falklands WarThe Falklands War , also called the Falklands Conflict/Crisis, was fought in 1982 between Argentina and the United Kingdom over the disputed Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands...
following Argentina's
unsuccessful attemptOn 2 April 1982, Argentine forces mounted amphibious landings of the Falkland Islands . The invasion involved initial defence organised by the Falkland Islands' Governor Sir Rex Hunt giving command to Major Mike Norman of the Royal Marines, the landing of Lieutenant-Commander Guillermo...
to seize the
Falkland IslandsThe Falkland Islands are an archipelago in the South Atlantic Ocean, located approximately from the coast of mainland South America, from mainland Antarctica, and from Africa. There are two main islands, East Falkland and West Falkland, as well as 776 smaller islands...
all combined to discredit the Argentine military regime. Under strong public pressure, the junta lifted bans on political parties and gradually restored basic political liberties.
Beagle conflict
The
Beagle conflictThe Beagle Conflict was a border dispute between Chile and Argentina over the possession of Picton, Lennox and Nueva islands and the scope of the maritime jurisdiction associated with those islands that bought the countries to the brink of war in 1978....
began to brew in the 1960s, when Argentina began to claim that the
Picton, Lennox and NuevaThe region of the Beagle Channel, explored by Robert FitzRoy eighteen-thirties, was one of the last ones to be colonized by Chile and Argentina. The cold weather, the long distances from other habitated regions and the shortage of transport and subsistence kept it far from the governmental task.In...
islands in the
Beagle ChannelThe Beagle Channel is a strait separating islands of the Tierra del Fuego Archipelago, in extreme southern South America. It separates Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego from the islands Nueva, Picton, Navarino, Hoste, Londonderry, Stewart Islands and other smaller to the south...
were rightfully hers. 1971 Chile and Argentina sign an agreement formally submitting the Beagle Channel issue to binding
Beagle Channel ArbitrationOn 1971 July 22 Salvador Allende and Alejandro Lanusse, the Presidents of Chile and Argentina, signed an arbitration agreement . This agreement related to their dispute over the territorial and maritime boundaries between them, and in particular the title to the Picton, Nueva and Lennox islands...
. On May 2, 1977 the court ruled that the islands and all adjacent formations belonged to Chile. See the
Report and decision of the Court of Arbitration.
On 25 January 1978 the Argentina military junta led by General Jorge Videla declared the award fundamentally null and intensified their claim over the islands. On 22. December 1978, Argentina started the
Operation Soberaniathumb|right|200px|[[Mine field]] in [[Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego]], photograph from 2006.In 1971 Chile and Argentina agreed to binding arbitration to settle a boundary dispute . On 22 May 1977 Queen Elizabeth II announced the judgment, which awarded the Picton, Nueva and Lennox islands to...
over the disputed islands, but the invasion was halted due to::
- (The newspaper Clarín explained some years later that such caution was based,) in part, on military concerns. In order to achieve a victory, certain objectives had to be reached before the seventh day after the attack. Some military leaders considered this not enough time due to the difficulty involved in transportation through the passes over the Andean Mountains.
and in cite 46:
- According to Clarín, two consequences were feared. First, those who were dubious feared a possible regionalization of the conflict. Second, as a consequence, the conflict could acquire great power proportions. In the first case decisionmakers speculated that Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Brazil might intervene. Then the great powers could take sides. In this case, the resolution of the conflict would depend not on the combatants, but on the countries that supplied the weapons.
In December that year, moments before Videla signed a declaration of war against Chile,
Pope John Paul IIPope John Paul II , born Karol Józef Wojtyła served as Supreme Pontiff of the Catholic Church and Sovereign of Vatican City from 16 October 1978 until his death almost 27 years later. His was the second-longest pontificate; only Pope Pius IX served longer...
agreed to mediate between the two nations. The Pope's envoy, Antonio Samoré, successfully averted war and proposed a new definitive boundary in which the three disputed islands would remain Chilean. Argentina and Chile both agreed to Samoré's proposal and signed the
Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1984 between Chile and ArgentinaThe Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1984 between Chile and Argentina was signed into agreement at the Vatican on 29th November 1984.It was ratified...
, ending that dispute.
The democratic transition (from 1983 to today)
On October 30, 1983, Argentines went to the polls to choose a president; vice-president; and national, provincial, and local officials in elections found by international observers to be fair and honest. The country returned to constitutional rule after
Raúl AlfonsínRaúl Ricardo Alfonsín was an Argentine lawyer, politician and statesman, who served as the President of Argentina from December 10, 1983, to July 8, 1989. Alfonsín was the first democratically-elected president of Argentina following the military government known as the National Reorganization...
, candidate of the
Radical Civic UnionThe Radical Civic Union is a political party in Argentina. The party's positions on issues range from liberal to social democratic. The UCR is a member of the Socialist International. Founded in 1891 by radical liberals, it is the oldest political party in Argentina...
(Unión Cívica Radical
, UCR), received 52% of the popular vote for president. He began a 6-year term of office on December 10, 1983. Five days later, he created the National Commission on the Disappearance of PersonsThe National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons was an Argentine organization created by President Raúl Alfonsín on 15 December 1983, shortly after his inauguration, to investigate the fate of the desaparecidos and other human rights violations performed during the military dictatorship...
(CONADEP), led by Argentine writer Ernesto SábatoErnesto Sabato is an Argentine writer. He was born in Rojas, a tiny town in the Province of Buenos Aires. Sabato began his studies at the Colegio Nacional de La Plata. He then read physics at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, where he earned a Ph.D. He then attended the Sorbonne in Paris and...
. However, it was also under Alfonsín's presidency that the December 24, 1986 Ley de Punto Final ("Full Stop Law") was voted, granting amnesty to all acts committed before December 10, 1983. It would not be until June 2005's
Supreme CourtThe Supreme Court of Argentina is the highest court of law of the Argentine Republic. It was inaugurated on 15 January 1863. However, during much of the 20th century, the Court and, in general, the Argentine judicial system, has lacked autonomy from the executive power...
decision to overturn all amnesty laws that investigations could be started again
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4093018.stm.
During the Alfonsín administration, a
Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1984 between Chile and ArgentinaThe Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1984 between Chile and Argentina was signed into agreement at the Vatican on 29th November 1984.It was ratified...
with Chile was signed and the roots of the
MercosurMercosur or Mercosul is a Regional Trade Agreement among Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay founded in 1991 by the Treaty of Asunción, which was later amended and updated by the 1994 Treaty of Ouro Preto...
trade bloc were established.
In 1985 and 1987, large turnouts for mid-term elections demonstrated continued public support for a strong and vigorous democratic system. The UCR-led government took steps to resolve some of the nation's most pressing problems, including accounting for those who disappeared during military rule, establishing
civilian control of the armed forcesCivilian control of the military is a doctrine in military and political science that places ultimate responsibility for a country's strategic decision-making in the hands of the civilian political leadership, rather than professional military officers. One author, paraphrasing Samuel P...
, and consolidating democratic institutions. However, constant friction with the military, failure to resolve endemic economic problems (
inflationIn economics, inflation is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a period of time.When the price level rises, each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services; consequently, inflation is also an erosion in the purchasing power of money – a loss of real...
peaked at 3080%), and an inability to maintain public confidence undermined the effectiveness of the Alfonsín government, which left office six months early after Peronist candidate
Carlos Saúl MenemCarlos Saúl Menem is an Argentine politician who was President of Argentina from July 8, 1989 to December 10, 1999.-Early life:...
won the 1989 presidential elections.
The 1990s
As President,
Carlos MenemCarlos Saúl Menem is an Argentine politician who was President of Argentina from July 8, 1989 to December 10, 1999.-Early life:...
launched a major overhaul of Argentine domestic policy. Large-scale structural reforms dramatically reversed the role of the state in Argentine economic life. Ironically, the Peronist Menem oversaw the
privatizationPrivatization is the incidence or process of transferring ownership of a business, enterprise, agency or public service from the public sector to the private sector...
of many of the industries Perón had nationalized. A decisive leader pressing a controversial agenda, Menem was not reluctant to use the presidency's powers to issue "emergency" decrees (formally decretos de necesidad y urgencia) when the Congress was unable to reach consensus on his proposed reforms. Those powers were curtailed somewhat when the constitution was reformed in 1994 as a result of the so-called
Olivos PactThe Olivos Pact refers to a series of documents signed between the governing president of Argentina Carlos Menem and former president and leader of the opposition Raúl Alfonsín, that formed the basis of the constitution reform of 1994....
with the opposition Radical Party. That arrangement opened the way for Menem to seek and win reelection with 50% of the vote in the three-way 1995 presidential race.
PiqueteroA piquetero is a member of a political faction whose primary modus operandi is based in the piquete. The piquete is an action by which a group of people blocks a road or street with the purpose of demonstrating and calling attention over a particular issue or demand...
movement rose.
The 1995 election saw the emergence of the moderate-left FrePaSo political alliance. This alternative to the two traditional political parties in Argentina was particularly strong in Buenos Aires but lacked the national infrastructure of the Peronists and Radicals. In an important development in Argentina's political life, all three major parties in the 1999 race espoused
free marketA free market describes a market without economic intervention and regulation by government except to regulate against force or fraud. The terminology is used by economists and in popular culture. A free market requires protection of property rights, but no regulation, no subsidization, no single...
economic policies. In October 1999, the
UCRThe Radical Civic Union is a political party in Argentina. The party's positions on issues range from liberal to social democratic. The UCR is a member of the Socialist International. Founded in 1891 by radical liberals, it is the oldest political party in Argentina...
-FrePaSo Alliance's presidential candidate,
Fernando de la RúaFernando de la Rúa is an Argentine politician. He was president of the country from December 10 1999 to December 21 2001 for the Alliance for Work, Justice and Education ....
, defeated Peronist candidate
Eduardo DuhaldeEduardo Alberto Duhalde is a former president of Argentina.-Biography:Duhalde was born in Lomas de Zamora, in the Greater Buenos Aires. He graduated as a lawyer in 1970. In 1987 he became a member of the Argentine National Congress and became vice-president under Carlos Menem from 1989 to his...
. Having taken office in December 1999, De la Rúa followed an
IMFThe International Monetary Fund is an international organization that oversees the global financial system by following the macroeconomic policies of its member countries, in particular those with an impact on exchange rates and the balance of payments...
-sponsored program of government spending cuts, revenue increases, and provincial revenue-sharing reforms to get the federal fiscal deficit under control. De la Rúa pursued labor law reform and business-promotion measures aimed at stimulating the economy and increasing employment.
The 2001 economic crisis
Towards the end of 2001, Argentina faced grave economic problems. The IMF pressed Argentina to service its
external debtExternal debt is that part of the total debt in a country that is owed to creditors outside the country. The debtors can be the government, corporations or private households...
, effectively forcing Argentina to
devalueDevaluation is a reduction in the value of a currency with respect to other monetary units. In common modern usage, it specifically implies an official lowering of the value of a country's currency within a fixed exchange rate system, by which the monetary authority formally sets a new fixed rate...
the Argentine peso, which had been pegged to the
U.S. dollarThe United States dollar is the unit of currency of the United States. The U.S. dollar is normally abbreviated as the dollar sign, $, or as USD or US$ to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies and from others that use the $ symbol. It is divided into 100 cents .The U.S...
. On November 1, 2001, as people's fears that the peso would be devalued caused massive withdrawal of bank deposits and
capital flightCapital flight, in economics, occurs when assets and/or money rapidly flow out of a country, due to an economic event that disturbs investors and causes them to lower their valuation of the assets in that country, or otherwise to lose confidence in its economic strength...
, de la Rúa's Minister of Economy
Domingo CavalloDomingo Felipe "Mingo" Cavallo is an Argentine economist and politician. He has a long history of public service and is known for implementing the Convertibilidad plan, which fixed the dollar-peso exchange rate at 1:1 between 1991 and 2001, which brought the Argentine inflation rate down from over...
passed regulations severely limiting withdrawals, effectively freezing the peso-denominated assets of the Argentine
middle classThe middle class are any class in the middle of a social schema. In Weberian socio-economic terms they are the broad group of people in contemporary society who fall socioeconomically between the working class and upper class. In Marxist terms, middle class commonly refers to either the...
, while the dollar-denominated foreign accounts of the wealthy were shielded from devaluation. (The freezing of the bank accounts was informally named
corralitoCorralito was the informal name for the economic measures taken in Argentina at the end of 2001 by Minister of Economy Domingo Cavallo in order to stop a bank run, and which were fully in force for one year. The corralito almost completely froze bank accounts and forbade withdrawals from U.S...
.)...
The overall economy declined drastically during December 2001.
The resulting riotsThe December 2001 riots were a period of civil unrest and rioting in Argentina, which took place during December 2001, with the most violent incidents taking place on December 19 and December 20 in the capital, Buenos Aires.- Background :...
led to dozens of deaths. The Minister of Economy Domingo Cavallo resigned, but that did not prevent the collapse of De la Rúa's administration. On December 20 de la Rúa also resigned, but the political crisis was extremely serious, as a result of the previous resignation of the vice-president
Carlos Chacho ÁlvarezCarlos Alberto "Chacho" Álvarez is an Argentine politician; he was Vice-President of Argentina during part of President Fernando de la Rúa's mandate, and currently heads the Mercosur Secretariat....
in 2000. The president of the Senate became
interimThe Latin phrase ad interim literally means "in the time between" denotes the meaning of "in the meantime", "for an intervening time" or "temporarily" in the English language...
president until the National Congress elected, two days later,
Adolfo Rodríguez SaáAdolfo Rodríguez Saá Páez Montero is an Argentine Peronist politician. He was the governor of the province of San Luis during several terms, and briefly served as President of Argentina....
to finish De la Rúa's term. But Rodríguez Saá resigned a week later on December 31, leaving the power to the president of the Chamber of Deputies (as the Senate was undergoing their annual renovation of its president) as interim.
Finally, on January 2, 2002, the National Congress elected the Peronist
Eduardo DuhaldeEduardo Alberto Duhalde is a former president of Argentina.-Biography:Duhalde was born in Lomas de Zamora, in the Greater Buenos Aires. He graduated as a lawyer in 1970. In 1987 he became a member of the Argentine National Congress and became vice-president under Carlos Menem from 1989 to his...
, a losing candidate in the most recent presidential election, as president. The peso was first devalued by 29%, and then the dollar peg was abandoned; by July 2002, the national currency had
depreciatedCurrency depreciation is the loss of value of a country's currency with respect to one or more foreign reference currencies, typically in a floating exchange rate system. It is most often used for the unofficial increase of the exchange rate due to market forces, though sometimes it appears...
to one-quarter of its former value.
The recovery and the Kirchner era
President Duhalde faced a country in turmoil. His administration had to deal with a wave of protests (middle-class
cacerolazoA cacerolazo or cacerolada is a form of popular protest practised in certain Spanish-speaking countries – in particular Argentina – which consists in a group of people creating noise by banging pots, pans, and other utensils in order to call for attention.The word comes from Spanish cacerola, which...
s and unemployed
piqueteroA piquetero is a member of a political faction whose primary modus operandi is based in the piquete. The piquete is an action by which a group of people blocks a road or street with the purpose of demonstrating and calling attention over a particular issue or demand...
s), and did so with a relatively tolerant policy, intending to minimize violence. As inflation became a serious issue and the effects of the crisis became apparent in the form of increased unemployment and poverty, Duhalde chose a moderate, low-profile economist,
Roberto LavagnaRoberto Lavagna is an Argentine economist and politician, and was the former Minister of Economy and Production of Argentina until 28 November 2005, when he was replaced with Felisa Miceli, president of Banco de la Nación Argentina...
, as his Minister of Economy. The economic measures implemented brought inflation under control.
After a year, Duhalde deemed his tasks fulfilled and, pressured by certain political factors, called for elections, which in April 2003 brought
Néstor KirchnerNéstor Carlos Kirchner Ostoić was the President of Argentina from May 25, 2003 until December 10, 2007. A Justicialist, Kirchner was previously governor of the province of Santa Cruz....
, the left-of-centre Peronist governor of
Santa CruzSanta Cruz is a province of Argentina, located in the southern part of the country, in Patagonia. It borders Chubut province to the north, and Chile to the west and south. To the east is the Atlantic Ocean...
, to power.
President Kirchner took office on May 25, 2003. He reshuffled the leadership of the Armed Forces, overturned controversial amnesty laws that protected members of the 1976-1983 dictatorship from prosecution, and kept Lavagna on as economy minister for most of his presidency. Kirchner's administration saw a strong economic rebound.
The
2007 general electionArgentina held national presidential and legislative elections on 28 October 2007, and elections for provincial governors took place on staggered dates throughout the year. For the national elections, each of the 23 provinces and the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires are considered electoral districts...
took place in ten provinces in September and Kirchner's
Front for VictoryThe Front for Victory is a peronist centre-left political party and electoral alliance in Argentina. Formally it is still a faction of the Justicialist Party. It is led by current president Cristina Fernández de Kirchner...
won in six provinces.
Hermes BinnerHermes Juan Binner is an Argentine medical doctor and a politician. He is the governor of Santa Fe since 11 December 2007. Binner is the first Socialist to become the governor of an Argentine province, and the first non-Justicialist to rule Santa Fe since 1983...
was elected
governor of Santa FeThe governor of the Argentine province of Santa Fe is the highest executive officeholder of the province.According to the provincial constitution , the governor is elected by the simple majority of the popular vote, along with a vice governor, for a four-year term, and cannot be reelected...
, defeating the Peronist
Rafael BielsaRafael Antonio Bielsa is an Argentine Justicialist Party politician from Rosario, province of Santa Fe. He is the brother of former Argentina national football team coach Marcelo Bielsa; both are well-known Newell's Old Boys supporters...
, Kirchner's former Minister of Foreign Affairs. Binner thus became the first
SocialistThe Socialist Party is a social-democratic political party in Argentina. The history of socialism in Argentina began in the 1890s, when a group of people, notably Juan B...
governor in Argentina's history, and the first non-Justicialist to rule the rather wealthy Santa Fe province (making 21% of Argentina's exports although almost 1/3 of the local population lives under the
poverty thresholdThe poverty threshold, or poverty line, is the minimum level of income deemed necessary to achieve an adequate standard of living in a given country...
) since 1983. Center-left
Fabiana RíosMaría Fabiana Ríos is an Argentine politician of the party ARI . She is the governor of the province of Tierra del Fuego since December 17, 2007. She is currently the only woman governor in Argentina.Ríos was elected governor on June 24, 2007...
(
ARISupport for an Egalitarian Republic is a social liberal Argentine political party, founded in 2001 by Elisa Carrió. It is a member of the Civic Coalition with centrist and centre-left parties.- Creation and political representation :...
) became the first woman to be elected governor of Tierra del Fuego, while the right-wing
Mauricio MacriMauricio Macri is an Argentine businessman become politician, son of Franco Macri an industrial businessman of Italian origin successful in the 1970's and '80s. He served as a national deputy representing the city of Buenos Aires in the Lower House of Congress, and, since 10 December 2007, is the...
was elected
Mayor of Buenos Aires (a similar office to governor) in June 2007.
On December 10, 2007,
Cristina Fernández de KirchnerCristina Elizabet Fernández de Kirchner , commonly known as Cristina Kirchner, is the current President of Argentina. A member of the Justicialist Party, she was a Senator for Buenos Aires Province prior to taking office...
took over the presidency from her husband, after winning elections with 44% of the vote. She kept many of her husband's ministers, but implied that she would introduce changes to the country during her presidency. Fernández says she will create a new ministry for science and technology to boost innovation, and stated that she would make "necessary corrections" to help the inflation problem in Argentina, and seek to promote foreign investment. In contrast with her husband's administration, which was seen as somewhat isolationist, Fernández has shown interest in promoting better ties with the United States, Europe, and Brazil.
After proposing a new taxation system for agricultural exports, the Cristina Fernández's Government had to face a
severe lock out of the sectorThe lock-out by the agricultural sector in Argentina in 2008 was a conflict with the Government of Argentina which started in March 2008, then extending into a prolonged period of turbulent politics...
. The protest, which spread over 129 days, was quickly politicized and marked a inflection point in her administration. The system was finally rejected in the Senate by the opposite vote of the same Vice president.
See also
- List of Presidents of Argentina
- State-Church relations in Argentina
The first conflicts between the Roman Catholic Church and the Argentine government can be traced to the ideas of the May Revolution of 1810.The Tribunal of the Inquisition was suppressed in the territories of the United Provinces of the River Plate on 1813-03-23, and on 4 June the General Assembly...
- History of Argentine nationality
Ideas and practices of nationality and citizenship in the Republic of Argentina have changed with distinct periods of its history, including but not limited to periods of indigenous, colonial, republican, and military rule...
- History of South America
The history of South America is the study of the past, particularly the written record, oral histories, and traditions, passed down from generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's southern hemisphere and western hemisphere. South America has a history that spans the full range of...
- History of Latin America
Latin America refers to countries in the Americas where Romance languages are spoken. These countries generally lie south of the United States...
- History of the Americas
The history of the Americas is the collective history of North and South America, including Central America and the Caribbean. It begins with people migrating to these areas from Asia during the height of an Ice Age...
External links