Histories is a book by
TacitusPublius Cornelius Tacitus was a senator and a historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors...
, written c.
100Year 100 was a leap year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar.-Roman Empire:* Bricks become the primary building material in the Roman Empire....
–
110-Roman Empire:* The Roman Empire has more than 75,000 kilometers of roads.* The Forum of Trajan is constructed in Rome by the Syrian architect Apollodorus of Damascus.* Tacitus is named proconsul of the province of Asia ....
, which covers the Year of Four Emperors following the downfall of
NeroNero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus , born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus, was the fifth and last Roman emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Nero was adopted by his great uncle Claudius to become heir to the throne...
, the rise of
VespasianTitus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian , was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 69 AD until his death in 79 AD...
, and the rule of the
Flavian DynastyThe Flavian dynasty was a Roman imperial dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 and 96 CE, encompassing the reigns of Vespasian , and his two sons Titus and Domitian . The Flavians rose to power during the civil war of 69, known as the Year of the Four Emperors...
(
69Year 69 was a common year starting on a Sunday of the Julian calendar.-Roman Empire:*The Year of the Four Emperors: After Nero's death, Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian succeed each other as emperor during the year.*January 15—Otho seizes power in Rome, proclaims himself emperor, and reigns...
–
96Year 96 was a leap year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar.-Roman Empire:* September 18—Nerva succeeds Domitian after the latter's assassination. The Flavian dynasty ends. This is considered to be the beginning of the Era of the Five Good Emperors...
) up to the death of
DomitianTitus Flavius Domitianus , known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death...
.
thumb
In one of the first chapters of the
AgricolaThe Agricola is a book by the Roman historian Tacitus, written c 98, which recounts the life of his father-in-law Gnaeus Julius Agricola, an eminent Roman general. It also covers, briefly, the geography and ethnography of ancient Britain...
Tacitus said that he wished to speak about the years of
DomitianTitus Flavius Domitianus , known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death...
, of
NervaMarcus Cocceius Nerva was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 96 until his death in 98. Nerva acceded to this position at the advanced age of 65, after a lifetime of imperial service under Nero and the rulers of the Flavian dynasty—Vespasian, Titus and Domitian...
, and of
TrajanMarcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan , was a Roman Emperor who reigned from A. D. 98 until his death in A. D. 117...
. In the
Historiae the project has been modified: in the introduction, Tacitus says that he will deal with the age of Nerva and Trajan at a later time.
Histories is a book by
TacitusPublius Cornelius Tacitus was a senator and a historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors...
, written c.
100Year 100 was a leap year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar.-Roman Empire:* Bricks become the primary building material in the Roman Empire....
–
110-Roman Empire:* The Roman Empire has more than 75,000 kilometers of roads.* The Forum of Trajan is constructed in Rome by the Syrian architect Apollodorus of Damascus.* Tacitus is named proconsul of the province of Asia ....
, which covers the Year of Four Emperors following the downfall of
NeroNero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus , born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus, was the fifth and last Roman emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Nero was adopted by his great uncle Claudius to become heir to the throne...
, the rise of
VespasianTitus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian , was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 69 AD until his death in 79 AD...
, and the rule of the
Flavian DynastyThe Flavian dynasty was a Roman imperial dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 and 96 CE, encompassing the reigns of Vespasian , and his two sons Titus and Domitian . The Flavians rose to power during the civil war of 69, known as the Year of the Four Emperors...
(
69Year 69 was a common year starting on a Sunday of the Julian calendar.-Roman Empire:*The Year of the Four Emperors: After Nero's death, Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian succeed each other as emperor during the year.*January 15—Otho seizes power in Rome, proclaims himself emperor, and reigns...
–
96Year 96 was a leap year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar.-Roman Empire:* September 18—Nerva succeeds Domitian after the latter's assassination. The Flavian dynasty ends. This is considered to be the beginning of the Era of the Five Good Emperors...
) up to the death of
DomitianTitus Flavius Domitianus , known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death...
.
thumb
Subject matter
In one of the first chapters of the
AgricolaThe Agricola is a book by the Roman historian Tacitus, written c 98, which recounts the life of his father-in-law Gnaeus Julius Agricola, an eminent Roman general. It also covers, briefly, the geography and ethnography of ancient Britain...
Tacitus said that he wished to speak about the years of
DomitianTitus Flavius Domitianus , known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death...
, of
NervaMarcus Cocceius Nerva was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 96 until his death in 98. Nerva acceded to this position at the advanced age of 65, after a lifetime of imperial service under Nero and the rulers of the Flavian dynasty—Vespasian, Titus and Domitian...
, and of
TrajanMarcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan , was a Roman Emperor who reigned from A. D. 98 until his death in A. D. 117...
. In the
Historiae the project has been modified: in the introduction, Tacitus says that he will deal with the age of Nerva and Trajan at a later time. Instead, he will cover the period that started with the civil wars of the Year of Four Emperors and ended with the despotism of the
FlaviansThe Flavian dynasty was a Roman imperial dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 and 96 CE, encompassing the reigns of Vespasian , and his two sons Titus and Domitian . The Flavians rose to power during the civil war of 69, known as the Year of the Four Emperors...
. Only the first four books and 26 chapters of the fifth book have survived, covering the year
69Year 69 was a common year starting on a Sunday of the Julian calendar.-Roman Empire:*The Year of the Four Emperors: After Nero's death, Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian succeed each other as emperor during the year.*January 15—Otho seizes power in Rome, proclaims himself emperor, and reigns...
and the first part of
70Year 70 was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar.-Roman Empire:* The building of the Colosseum starts .* Frontinus is praetor of Rome....
. The work is believed to have continued up to the death of
DomitianTitus Flavius Domitianus , known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death...
on September 18,
96Year 96 was a leap year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar.-Roman Empire:* September 18—Nerva succeeds Domitian after the latter's assassination. The Flavian dynasty ends. This is considered to be the beginning of the Era of the Five Good Emperors...
. The fifth book contains—as a prelude to the account of Titus's suppression of the Great Jewish Revolt—a short ethnographic survey of the ancient
JewThe Jews , also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation...
s and is an invaluable record of the educated Romans' attitude towards that people.
Tacitus wrote the
Historiae 30 years later, not long after
TrajanMarcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan , was a Roman Emperor who reigned from A. D. 98 until his death in A. D. 117...
's seizure of power, which bore similarities to the events of the year
69Year 69 was a common year starting on a Sunday of the Julian calendar.-Roman Empire:*The Year of the Four Emperors: After Nero's death, Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian succeed each other as emperor during the year.*January 15—Otho seizes power in Rome, proclaims himself emperor, and reigns...
, when four emperors (
GalbaServius Sulpicius Galba , also called Servius Sulpicius Galba Caesar Augustus, was Roman Emperor for seven months, from 8 June 68 until his murder...
,
OthoFor other uses, see Otho .Marcus Salvius Otho , also called Marcus Salvius Otho Caesar Augustus, was Roman Emperor from 15 January to 16 April 69, the second emperor of the Year of the four emperors....
,
VitelliusAulus Vitellius Germanicus, born Aulus Vitellius and commonly known as Vitellius , was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 16 April 69 to 22 December of the same year...
and
VespasianTitus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian , was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 69 AD until his death in 79 AD...
) each took power in quick succession. The mode of their accession showed that because imperial power was based on the support of the legions, an emperor could now be chosen not only at Rome, but anywhere in the empire where sufficient legions were massed.
NervaMarcus Cocceius Nerva was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 96 until his death in 98. Nerva acceded to this position at the advanced age of 65, after a lifetime of imperial service under Nero and the rulers of the Flavian dynasty—Vespasian, Titus and Domitian...
, like Galba, came to the throne by senatorial designation, in Nerva's case after the violent death of the previous emperor, Domitian. Like Galba, Nerva had to deal with a revolt of
PraetorianPraetorian is an adjective derived from the ancient Roman office of praetor. It may refer to:*Praetorian Guard, a special force of skilled and celebrated troops serving as the personal guard of Roman Emperors...
s and like Galba, he had designated his successor by the traditional expedient of
adoptionAdoption is a process whereby a person assumes the parenting for another who is not kin and, in so doing, permanently transfers all rights and responsibilities from the original parent or parents...
. Galba, described by Tacitus as a feeble old man, had chosen a successor unable, due to his severity, to obtain the faith and the control of the troops. Nerva, instead, had consolidated his power by making a link between the throne and Trajan, who was general of the Upper Rhine legions and popular throughout the army. It is probable that Tacitus was a member of the imperial council in which Trajan was chosen to be adopted.
Ideology
In the first book of the
Historiae, a speech put in the mouth of Galba makes clear Tacitus' ideological and political position. Galba's pure respect for formality and lack of political realism rendered him unable to control events. In contrast, Nerva adopted Trajan, who was able to keep the legions unified, to keep the army out of imperial politics, to stop disorder among the legions, and thus to prevent rival claimants to the throne. Tacitus was sure that only the
principatusThe Principate is the first period of the Roman Empire, extending from the beginning of the reign of Caesar Augustus to the Crisis of the Third Century, after which it was replaced with the Dominate. The Principate is characterized by a concerted effort on the part of the Emperors to preserve the...
(the "prince", that is, the
monarchicalThe person who heads a monarchy is called a monarch. It was a common form of government in the world during the ancient and medieval times. A Monarchy is a form of government in which supreme power is absolutely or nominally lodged with an individual, who is the head of state, often for life or...
emperor) could maintain peace, the fidelity of the armies, and the cohesion of the empire.
Discussing Augustus Caesar's rise to power, Tacitus says that after the
battle of ActiumThe Battle of Actium was the decisive confrontation of the Final War of the Roman Republic. It was fought between the forces of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra. The battle took place on 2 September 31 BC, on the Ionian Sea near the Roman colony of Actium in Greece...
the unification of the power in the hands of a prince was necessary to keep the peace. The prince ought not to be a tyrant, like Domitian, nor a fool, like Galba. He should be able to keep the
imperiumImperium in a broad sense translates as 'power'. In ancient Rome the concept applied to people and meant something like 'power status' or 'authority' or could be used with a geographical connotation and meant something like 'territory'...
safe, while saving the prestige and the dignity of the Senate (
SenecaLucius Annaeus Seneca was a Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, dramatist, and in one work humorist, of the Silver Age of Latin literature. He was tutor and later advisor to emperor Nero...
addresses the same point). Tacitus, without any illusions, considered the rule of the adoptive Emperors the only possible solution to the problems of Empire.
Style
The style of narration is rapid, reflecting the speed of the events. The rhythm of the narration leaves no space to slow down or digress. To write effectively in this style, Tacitus had to summarize much information from his sources. Sometimes he skips parts; more usually he divides the story into single scenes and, in this way, creates a dramatic narration. Tacitus is a master at describing a mass of people. He knows how to portray the mass when it is calm; he knows equally how to show the threat of insurrection and panic-stricken flight.
Tacitus writes from the point of view of an aristocrat. He shows fear, mixed with disdain, for the soldiers' tumult and for the rabble of the capital. He also holds in low esteem those members of the Senate, whose comportment he describes with malice, insisting upon the contrast between their public image and the unconfessable reality: adulation, conspiracy, and ambition. The
Historiae is a grim work; it speaks throughout of violence, dishonesty, and injustice.
Tacitus skillfully shows the characters, alternating short and sharp notations with complete portraits. His technique is similar to that of
SallustFor the philosopher, see Sallustius; for other uses, see Sallust .Gaius Sallustius Crispus, generally known simply as Sallust, , a Roman historian, belonged to a well-known plebeian family, and was born at Amiternum in the country of the Sabines...
: incongruency,
parataxisParataxis is a literary technique, in writing or speaking, that favors short, simple sentences, without the use of coordinating or subordinating conjunctions...
, and loose stylistic structure combine to make the characters sharp. The influence of Sallust is clear in the rest of Tacitus's style as well. Tacitus improves on the method, stressing the tension between
gravitasGravitas is a quality of substance or depth of personality.Gravitas is one of the several virtues that ancient Roman society expected men to possess, along with pietas, dignitas, and iustitia."Gravitas" should not be confused with "gravity" in the sense of importance, although they have a common...
, which connects the narrative with the past, and
pathosPathos is one of the three modes of persuasion in rhetoric . Pathos appeals to the audience's emotions. It is a part of Aristotle's philosophies in rhetoric...
, which makes it dramatic. Tacitus loves
ellipsisEllipsis is a mark or series of marks that usually indicate an intentional omission of a word or a phrase from the original text. An ellipsis can also be used to indicate a pause in speech, an unfinished thought, or, at the end of a sentence, a trailing off into silence...
of verbs and conjunctions. He uses irregular constructs and frequent changes of subject to give variety and movement to the narration. It often happens that when a sentence seems finished, it is extended with a surprising
tail that adds a comment, which is usually alluding or indirect.
External links
(transl. by
Alfred John ChurchAlfred John Church was an English classical scholar.Church was born in London and was educated at King's College London, and Lincoln College, Oxford, he took holy orders and was an assistant-master at Merchant Taylors' School for many years...
and William Jackson Brodribb) (transl. by
Alfred John ChurchAlfred John Church was an English classical scholar.Church was born in London and was educated at King's College London, and Lincoln College, Oxford, he took holy orders and was an assistant-master at Merchant Taylors' School for many years...
and William Jackson Brodribb) (transl. by
William Hamilton FyfeSir William Hamilton Fyfe was an English and Canadian classics scholar, educator, and educational administrator. He served as the 10th Principal of Queen's University, Ontario, from 1930 to 1936, and was the first layman to hold that position. He served as Principal and Vice-Chancellor of the...
)