Hindi literature is broadly divided into four prominent forms or styles, being
BhaktiIn Hinduism Bhakti is religious devotion in the form of active involvement of a devotee in worship of the divine.Within monotheistic Hinduism, it is the love felt by the worshipper towards the personal God, a concept expressed in Hindu theology as Svayam Bhagavan.Bhakti can be used of either...
(devotional - Kabir, Raskhan); Shringar (beauty - Keshav, Bihari); Veer-Gatha (extolling brave warriors); and Adhunik (modern). It includes literature in the various
Hindi languagesThe Hindi languages, also known as Madhya and the Central Zone of the Indo-Aryan languages, is a subset of the varieties of Hindi spoken across northern India that descend from the Madhya prakrits, and includes the official languages of India and Pakistan, Hindi and Urdu...
which have written forms.
Regions and dialects
Modern Standard Hindi, one of the official languages of India according to the
Constitution of IndiaThe Constitution of India is the supreme law of India. It lays down the framework defining fundamental political principles, establishes the structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government institutions, and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles, and the duties of citizens...
, (Article 343), is only the basis of modern literature, from the 19th century. Earlier Hindi literature was based on other
Hindi languagesThe Hindi languages, also known as Madhya and the Central Zone of the Indo-Aryan languages, is a subset of the varieties of Hindi spoken across northern India that descend from the Madhya prakrits, and includes the official languages of India and Pakistan, Hindi and Urdu...
, including the dialects of Braj Bhasha,
BundeliBundeli is a Western Hindi language spoken in the Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh and in southern parts of Uttar Pradesh...
,
AwadhiAwadhi is an Indo-Aryan language, part of the Hindi-Urdu continuum. It is spoken chiefly in the Awadh region of Uttar Pradesh, although its speakers are also found in Madhya Pradesh, Delhi and Nepal. Furthermore, the Fiji Hindi dialect spoken by Indo-Fijians is considered a variant of Awadhi,...
,
KannaujiKannauji language is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in parts of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh...
, and
KhariboliKhariboli , also Khari Boli, Khadiboli, Khadi Boli or simply Khari, is a Western Hindi dialect spoken mainly in the rural surroundings of Delhi, the northern areas of Western Uttar Pradesh and the southern areas of Uttarakhand in India...
in Devnagari script. In addition, regional Hindi languages such as
MarwariThe Marwari language , also variously Marvari, Marwadi, Marvadi), is spoken in the Indian state of Rajasthan. Marwari is also found in the neighboring state of Gujarat and Haryana and in Eastern Pakistan...
,
MaithiliMaithili language is spoken in the eastern region of India and South-eastern region of Nepal. The native speakers of Maithili reside in Bihar, Jharkhand,parts of West Bengal and South-east Nepal...
, Magahi, Angika, Vajjika and
BhojpuriBhojpuri is a language spoken in parts of north-central and eastern India. It is spoken in the western part of state of Bihar, the northwestern part of Jharkhand, and the Purvanchal region of Uttar Pradesh , as well as adjoining parts of the Nepal Terai. Bhojpuri is also spoken in Guyana,...
continue to be important; although Maithili is now considered a separate language, it was long considered a variety of
BihariBihari is a name given to the western group of Eastern Indic languages, spoken in Bihar and neighboring states in India. Angika, Bajjika, Bhojpuri, Magahi, and Maithili are spoken in Nepal as well. The Angika, Bajjika, Bhojpuri, Magahi and Maithili speaking population form more than 21% of Nepalese...
and thus a dialect of Hindi.
Adi kaal or Veer Gatha kaal (आदिकाल या वीरगाथा काल) (1050 to 1375)
In the ancient period of Hindi or Adi Kaal (before 1400
CECommon Era ,abbreviated as CE, is an alternative designation for the calendar era originally introduced by Dionysius Exiguus in the 6th century, traditionally identified with Anno Domini .Dates before the year 1 CE are indicated by the usage of BCE, short for Before the Common Era Common Era...
), Hindi literature was developed in the states of
KannaujKannauj , also spelt Kanauj, is a city, administrative headquarters and a municipal board or Nagar Palika Parishad in Kannauj district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. The city's name is traditionally derived from the term Kanyakubja . Kannauj is an ancient city, in earlier times the capital...
,
DelhiDelhi , officially National Capital Territory of Delhi , is the largest metropolis by area and the second-largest by population in India, next to Mumbai. It is the eighth largest metropolis in the world by population with 16,753,265 inhabitants in the Territory at the 2011 Census...
,
AjmerAjmer , formerly written as Ajmere, is a city in Ajmer District in Rajasthan state in India. Ajmer has a population of around 800,000 , and is located west of the Rajasthan state capital Jaipur, 200 km from Jodhpur, 274 km from Udaipur, 439 km from Jaisalmer, and 391 km from...
, stretching up to central India, modern
Madhya PradeshMadhya Pradesh , often called the Heart of India, is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal and Indore is the largest city....
.
DelhiDelhi , officially National Capital Territory of Delhi , is the largest metropolis by area and the second-largest by population in India, next to Mumbai. It is the eighth largest metropolis in the world by population with 16,753,265 inhabitants in the Territory at the 2011 Census...
was ruled by Prithviraj Chauhan (1168-1192 CE), that is when his court poet,
Chand BardaiChand Bardai was the court poet of the Indian king Prithviraj III Chauhan, who ruled Ajmer and Delhi from 1165 to 1192. A native of Lahore, Chand Bardai composed the Prithviraj Raso, an epic poem in Hindi about the life of Prithviraj...
, composed a eulogy to him, titled
Prithviraj RasoThe Prithviraj Raso or Prithvirajaraso is an epic poem composed by court poet, Chand Bardai, on the life of Prithviraj III, a Chauhan king who ruled Ajmer and Delhi between 1165 and 1192.Chand Bardai claimed to be contemporary of Prithviraj Chauhan.The historicity of Prithviraj Raso was proved...
, which was considered one of the first works in the History of Hindi Literature.
KannaujKannauj , also spelt Kanauj, is a city, administrative headquarters and a municipal board or Nagar Palika Parishad in Kannauj district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. The city's name is traditionally derived from the term Kanyakubja . Kannauj is an ancient city, in earlier times the capital...
's last
RathoreThe Rathore is a Suryavanshi Rajput clan same caste as Lohana. Their Kuldevi is Nagnechiya Mata and "Karani Mata". Rathores are originally from Kannauj in Uttar Pradesh. Rathores are historically considered the samurais of India...
ruler was Jayachand, who gave more patronage to
SanskritSanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Buddhism: besides Pali, see Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand...
(which was no longer the common man's language). His court poet was Harsha (whose major poetic work was Naishdhiya Charitra).
MahobaMahoba is a city and Mahoba District of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, in the Bundelkhand region. Mahoba is known for its closeness to Khajuraho, Laundi and other historic places like Kulpahar, Charkhari, Kalinjar, Orchha, and Jhansi...
's royal poet Jagnayak (or Jagnik) and
AjmerAjmer , formerly written as Ajmere, is a city in Ajmer District in Rajasthan state in India. Ajmer has a population of around 800,000 , and is located west of the Rajasthan state capital Jaipur, 200 km from Jodhpur, 274 km from Udaipur, 439 km from Jaisalmer, and 391 km from...
's Nalha were other literary figures in this period. However, after Prithviraj Chauhan's defeat, most literary works belonging to this period were destroyed during Muhammad Ghori's campaign. Very few scriptures or manuscripts from this period are available and their genuineness is also doubted.
Some
SiddhaA Siddha सिद्ध in Sanskrit means "one who is accomplished" and refers to perfected masters who, according to Hindu belief, have transcended the ahamkara , have subdued their minds to be subservient to their Awareness, and have transformed their bodies into a different kind of body dominated by...
and Nathpanthi poets' works belonging to this period are also found, but their genuineness is again, doubted. Siddhas belonged to
VajrayanaVajrayāna Buddhism is also known as Tantric Buddhism, Tantrayāna, Mantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Esoteric Buddhism and the Diamond Vehicle...
, a later Buddhist cult. Many argue that the language of Siddha poetry is not earlier Hindi, but Magadhi
PrakritPrakrit is the name for a group of Middle Indic, Indo-Aryan languages, derived from Old Indic dialects. The word itself has a flexible definition, being defined sometimes as, "original, natural, artless, normal, ordinary, usual", or "vernacular", in contrast to the literary and religious...
. Nathpanthis were
yogisYoga is a physical, mental, and spiritual discipline, originating in ancient India. The goal of yoga, or of the person practicing yoga, is the attainment of a state of perfect spiritual insight and tranquility while meditating on Supersoul...
who practised
Hatha yogaHatha yoga , also called hatha vidya , is a system of yoga introduced by Yogi Swatmarama, a Hindu sage of 15th century India, and compiler of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika....
. Some Jain and Rasau (heroic poets) poetry works are also available from this period.
In the Deccan region in South India, Dakkhini or Hindavi was used. It flourished under the
Delhi SultanateThe Delhi Sultanate is a term used to cover five short-lived, Delhi based kingdoms or sultanates, of Turkic origin in medieval India. The sultanates ruled from Delhi between 1206 and 1526, when the last was replaced by the Mughal dynasty...
and later under the
NizamNizam-ul-Mulk of Hyderabad popularly known as Nizams of Hyderabad was a former monarchy of the Hyderabad State, now in the states of Andhra Pradesh , Karnataka , and Maharashtra in India...
s of
Hyderabad-After Indian independence :When India gained independence in 1947 and Pakistan came into existence in 1947, the British left the local rulers of the princely states the choice of whether to join one of the new dominions or to remain independent...
. It was written in the
PersianPersian is an Iranian language within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan and countries which historically came under Persian influence...
script. Nevertheless, the Hindavi literature can be considered as proto-Hindi literature. Many Deccani experts like Sheikh Ashraf or Mulla Vajahi used the word Hindavi to describe this dialect. Others such as Roustami, Nishati etc. preferred to call it Deccani. Shah Buharnuddin Janam Bijapuri used to call it Hindi. The first Deccani author was Khwaja Bandanawaz Gesudaraz Muhammad Hasan. He wrote three prose works - Mirazul Aashkini, Hidayatnama and Risala Sehwara. His grandson Abdulla Hussaini wrote Nishatul Ishq. The first Deccani poet was Nizami.
During the later part of this period and early Bhakti Kala, many saint-poets like Ramanand and Gorakhnath became famous. The earliest form of Hindi can also be seen in some of
VidyapatiVidyapati Thakur , also known by the sobriquet Maithil Kavi Kokil was a Maithili poet and a Sanskrit writer. He was born in the village of Bishphi in Madhubani district of Bihar state, India. He was son of Ganapati...
's Maithili works.
Bhakti Kaal (भक्तिकाल)(1375 to 1700)
The medieval Hindi literature is marked by the influence of
BhaktiIn Hinduism Bhakti is religious devotion in the form of active involvement of a devotee in worship of the divine.Within monotheistic Hinduism, it is the love felt by the worshipper towards the personal God, a concept expressed in Hindu theology as Svayam Bhagavan.Bhakti can be used of either...
movement and composition of long, epic poems.
Avadhi and
Brij BhashaBraj Bhasha , also called Brij Bhasha , Braj Bhakha , or Dehaati Zabaan , is a Central Indian language closely related to Hindi...
were the dialects in which literature was developed. The main works in Avadhi are
Malik Muhammad JayasiMalik Muhammad Jayasi was an Indian poet who wrote in the Avadhi dialect of Hindi.He hailed from Jais, presently a city in the Rae Bareli district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh...
's Padmavat and
TulsidasTulsidas , was a Hindu poet-saint, reformer and philosopher renowned for his devotion for the god Rama...
's
RamacharitamanasShri Ramcharitmanas , also spelt Shri Ramcharitamanasa, is an epic poem in Awadhi, composed by the 16th-century Indian poet, Goswami Tulsidas...
. The major works in Braj dialect are
TulsidasTulsidas , was a Hindu poet-saint, reformer and philosopher renowned for his devotion for the god Rama...
's
Vinaya PatrikaVinaya Patrika is a devotional poem composed by the 16th-century Indian poet, Goswami Tulsidas , containing hymns to different Hindu deities especially to Lord Rama in extreme humility .Vinaya Patrika is an important work of medieval Hindi Literature and Bhakti...
and
SurdasSurdas, the 15th century sightless saint, poet and musician, is known for his devotional songs dedicated to Lord Krishna. Surdas is said to have written and composed a hundred thousand songs in his magnum opus the 'Sur Sagar' , out of which only about 8,000 are extant...
's Sur Sagar.
SadhukaddiSadhukaddi, a popular language of medieval India, is a vernacular dialect of Hindi/ Hindustani which is a mix of Hindi , Braj Bhasha, Awadhi, Bhojpuri and Rajasthani, hence it is also commonly called a Panchmail Khichadi....
was also a language commonly used, especially by
KabirKabīr was a mystic poet and saint of India, whose writings have greatly influenced the Bhakti movement...
in his poetry and dohas.
The Bhakti period also marked great theoretical development in poetry forms chiefly from a mixture of older forms of poetry in Sanskrit School and the Persian School. These included Verse Patterns like Doha (two-liners), Sortha, Chaupaya (four-liners) etc. This was also the age when Poetry was characterized under the various Rasas. Unlike the Adi Kaal (also called the Vir Gatha Kaal) which was characterized by an overdose of Poetry in the Vir Rasa (Heroic Poetry), the Bhakti Yug marked a much more diverse and vibrant form of poetry which spanned the whole gamut of
rasas from Shringara rasa (love), Vir Rasa (Heroism).
Bhakti poetry had two schools - the Nirguna school (the believers of a formless God or an abstract name) and the Saguna school (the believers of a God with attributes and worshippers of Vishnu's incarnations).
KabirKabīr was a mystic poet and saint of India, whose writings have greatly influenced the Bhakti movement...
and Guru Nanak belong to the Nirguna school, and their philosophy was greatly influenced by the
Advaita VedantaAdvaita Vedanta is considered to be the most influential and most dominant sub-school of the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy. Other major sub-schools of Vedānta are Dvaita and ; while the minor ones include Suddhadvaita, Dvaitadvaita and Achintya Bhedabheda...
philosophy of Adi Sankaracharya. They believed in the concept of Nirgun Nirakaar Bramh or the Shapeless Formless One. The Saguna school was represented by mainly Vaishnava poets like
SurdasSurdas, the 15th century sightless saint, poet and musician, is known for his devotional songs dedicated to Lord Krishna. Surdas is said to have written and composed a hundred thousand songs in his magnum opus the 'Sur Sagar' , out of which only about 8,000 are extant...
,
TulsidasTulsidas , was a Hindu poet-saint, reformer and philosopher renowned for his devotion for the god Rama...
and others and was a logical extension of the Dvaita and Vishishta Advaita Philosophy propounded by the likes of Madhavacharya etc. This school was chiefly Vaishnava in orientation as in seen in the main compositions like
RamacharitamanasShri Ramcharitmanas , also spelt Shri Ramcharitamanasa, is an epic poem in Awadhi, composed by the 16th-century Indian poet, Goswami Tulsidas...
, Sur Saravali, Sur Sagar extoling
RamaRama or full name Ramachandra is considered to be the seventh avatar of Vishnu in Hinduism, and a king of Ayodhya in ancient Indian...
and
KrishnaKrishna is a central figure of Hinduism and is traditionally attributed the authorship of the Bhagavad Gita. He is the supreme Being and considered in some monotheistic traditions as an Avatar of Vishnu...
.
This was also the age of tremendous integration between the Hindu and the
IslamIslam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
ic elements in the Arts with the advent of many Muslim Bhakti poets like
Abdul Rahim Khan-I-KhanaKhanzada Mirza Khan Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana , also known as Rahim was a composer in the times of Mughal emperor Akbar, and one of his main nine ministers in his court, also known as the Navaratnas; he is most known for his Hindi couplets and his books on Astrology...
who was a court poet to
MughalThe Mughal Empire , or Mogul Empire in traditional English usage, was an imperial power from the Indian Subcontinent. The Mughal emperors were descendants of the Timurids...
emperor Akbar and was a great devotee of Krishna. The Nirgun School of Bhakti Poetry was also tremendously secular in nature and its propounders like Kabir and Guru Nanak had a large number of followers irrespective of caste or religion.
it is all about period of veer ras
Ritikavya Kaal (रीतिकाल)(1700 to 1900)
In Ritikavya or Ritismagra Kavya period, the erotic element became predominant in
HindiStandard Hindi, or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi, also known as Manak Hindi , High Hindi, Nagari Hindi, and Literary Hindi, is a standardized and sanskritized register of the Hindustani language derived from the Khariboli dialect of Delhi...
literature. This era is called Riti (meaning 'procedure') because it was the age when poetic figures and theory were developed to the fullest. But this emphasis on poetry theory greatly reduced the emotional sspects of poetry—the main characteristic of the Bhakti movement—and the actual content of the poetry became less important. The Saguna School of the Bhakti Yug split into two schools (Rama bhakti and Krishna bhakti) somewhere in the interregnum of the Bhakti and the Reeti Eras. Although most Reeti works were outwordly related to
KrishnaKrishna is a central figure of Hinduism and is traditionally attributed the authorship of the Bhagavad Gita. He is the supreme Being and considered in some monotheistic traditions as an Avatar of Vishnu...
BhaktiIn Hinduism Bhakti is religious devotion in the form of active involvement of a devotee in worship of the divine.Within monotheistic Hinduism, it is the love felt by the worshipper towards the personal God, a concept expressed in Hindu theology as Svayam Bhagavan.Bhakti can be used of either...
, their emphasis had changed from total devotion to the supreme being to the
Shringar or erotic aspects of Krishna's life—his Leela, his pranks with the Gopis in
BrajBraj is a region mainly in Uttar Pradesh of India, around Mathura-Vrindavan. Braj, though never a clearly defined political region in India but is very well demarcated culturally, is considered to be the land of Krishna and is derived from the Sanskrit word vraja...
, and the description of the physical beauty of
KrishnaKrishna is a central figure of Hinduism and is traditionally attributed the authorship of the Bhagavad Gita. He is the supreme Being and considered in some monotheistic traditions as an Avatar of Vishnu...
and
RadhaRadha , also called Radhika, Radharani and Radhikarani, is the childhood friend and lover of Krishna in the Bhagavata Purana, and the Gita Govinda of the Vaisnava traditions of Hinduism...
,(Krishna's Consort). The poetry of Bihari, and Ghananand Das fit this bill. The most well known book from this age is the
Bihari SatsaiThe Satasai or Bihari Satsai is a famous work of the early 17th century by the Hindi poet Bihārī, in the Braj Bhasha dialect of Hindi spoken in the Braj region of northern India...
of Bihari, a collection of Dohas (couplets), dealing with
BhaktiIn Hinduism Bhakti is religious devotion in the form of active involvement of a devotee in worship of the divine.Within monotheistic Hinduism, it is the love felt by the worshipper towards the personal God, a concept expressed in Hindu theology as Svayam Bhagavan.Bhakti can be used of either...
(devotion), Neeti (Moral policies) and Shringar (love).
Adhunik Kaal: 1900 onwards
In 1800, the
British East India CompanyThe East India Company was an early English joint-stock company that was formed initially for pursuing trade with the East Indies, but that ended up trading mainly with the Indian subcontinent and China...
established
Fort William CollegeFort William College was an academy and learning centre of Oriental studies established by Lord Wellesley, then Governor-General of British India. It was founded on July 10, 1800 within the Fort William complex in Calcutta...
at Calcutta. The College President
J. B. GilchristJohn Borthwick Gilchrist FRSE was a Scottish surgeon and Indologist.-Early life:Gilchrist was born in Edinburgh to merchant Walter Gilchrist, who disappeared the year he was born...
hired professors to write books in Hindi and Urdu. Some of these books were
Prem Sagar by Lallu Lal, Naasiketopaakhyan by Sadal Mishra, Sukhsagar by Sadasukhlal of Delhi and Rani Ketaki ki kahani by Munshi Inshallah Khan.
The person who brought realism in the Hindi prose literature was
Munshi PremchandMunshi Premchand , was a famous writer of modern Hindi-Urdu literature. He is generally recognized in India as the foremost Hindi-Urdu writer of the early twentieth century...
, who is considered as the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement. Before Premchand, the Hindi literature revolved around fairy or magical tales, entertaining stories and religious themes. Premchand's novels have been translated into many other languages.
Dwivedi Yug (द्विवेदी युग)
The Dwivedi Yug ("Age of Dwivedi") in Hindi literature lasted from 1900 to 1918.It is named after
Mahavir Prasad DwivediMahavir Prasad Dwivedi was a noted Indian Hindi writer. Adhunikkaal, or the Modern period of the Hindi literature is divided into four phases, and he represents the second phase, known as the Dwivedi Yug after him, which was preceded by the Bharatendu Yug , followed by the Chhayavad Yug and the...
, who played a major role in establishing modern Hindi language in poetry and broadening the acceptable subjects of Hindi poetry from the traditional ones of religion and romantic love. He encouraged poetry in Hindi dedicated to nationalism and social reform.
Dwivedi became the editor of Sarasvati in 1903 and used it to crusade for reforms in Hindi literature. One of the most prominent poems of the period was Maithilisharan Gupta's Bharat-bharati, which evokes the past glory of India. Shridhar Prathak's Bharatgit is another renowned poem of the period.
Some scholars have labeled much of the poetry of this period as "versified propaganda". According to Lucy Rosenstein: "It is verse of public statement; its language is functional but aesthetically unappealing. Earnest, concerned with social issues and moral values, it is puritanical poetry in which aesthetic considerations are secondary. Imagination, originality, poetic sensibility and expression are wanting, the metre is restrictive, the idiom clumsy." She adds, however, that the period was important for laying the foundations for modern Hindi poetry, it did reflect sensitivity to social issues of the time, and the inelegance is a typical feature of a "young" poetry, as she considers Modern Hindi.
Without a poetic tradition in modern Hindi, poets often modeled their forms on Braj, and later on Sanskrit, Urdu, Bengali and English forms, often ill-suited to Hindi. The subjects of the poems tended to be communal rather than personal. Characters were often presented not as individuals but as social types.
Chhayavaadi Yug (छायावाद) -
{{Distinguish2|Hindu literature, the specific literature of the Hindu religious tradition.}}
Hindi literature ({{lang-hi|हिन्दी साहित्य}}), is broadly divided into four prominent forms or styles, being
BhaktiIn Hinduism Bhakti is religious devotion in the form of active involvement of a devotee in worship of the divine.Within monotheistic Hinduism, it is the love felt by the worshipper towards the personal God, a concept expressed in Hindu theology as Svayam Bhagavan.Bhakti can be used of either...
(devotional - Kabir, Raskhan); Shringar (beauty - Keshav, Bihari); Veer-Gatha (extolling brave warriors); and Adhunik (modern). It includes literature in the various
Hindi languagesThe Hindi languages, also known as Madhya and the Central Zone of the Indo-Aryan languages, is a subset of the varieties of Hindi spoken across northern India that descend from the Madhya prakrits, and includes the official languages of India and Pakistan, Hindi and Urdu...
which have written forms.
{{History of literature5}}
Regions and dialects
{{Main|Hindi languages}}
Modern Standard Hindi, one of the official languages of India according to the
Constitution of IndiaThe Constitution of India is the supreme law of India. It lays down the framework defining fundamental political principles, establishes the structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government institutions, and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles, and the duties of citizens...
, (Article 343), is only the basis of modern literature, from the 19th century. Earlier Hindi literature was based on other
Hindi languagesThe Hindi languages, also known as Madhya and the Central Zone of the Indo-Aryan languages, is a subset of the varieties of Hindi spoken across northern India that descend from the Madhya prakrits, and includes the official languages of India and Pakistan, Hindi and Urdu...
, including the dialects of Braj Bhasha,
BundeliBundeli is a Western Hindi language spoken in the Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh and in southern parts of Uttar Pradesh...
,
AwadhiAwadhi is an Indo-Aryan language, part of the Hindi-Urdu continuum. It is spoken chiefly in the Awadh region of Uttar Pradesh, although its speakers are also found in Madhya Pradesh, Delhi and Nepal. Furthermore, the Fiji Hindi dialect spoken by Indo-Fijians is considered a variant of Awadhi,...
,
KannaujiKannauji language is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in parts of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh...
, and
KhariboliKhariboli , also Khari Boli, Khadiboli, Khadi Boli or simply Khari, is a Western Hindi dialect spoken mainly in the rural surroundings of Delhi, the northern areas of Western Uttar Pradesh and the southern areas of Uttarakhand in India...
in Devnagari script. In addition, regional Hindi languages such as
MarwariThe Marwari language , also variously Marvari, Marwadi, Marvadi), is spoken in the Indian state of Rajasthan. Marwari is also found in the neighboring state of Gujarat and Haryana and in Eastern Pakistan...
,
MaithiliMaithili language is spoken in the eastern region of India and South-eastern region of Nepal. The native speakers of Maithili reside in Bihar, Jharkhand,parts of West Bengal and South-east Nepal...
, Magahi, Angika, Vajjika and
BhojpuriBhojpuri is a language spoken in parts of north-central and eastern India. It is spoken in the western part of state of Bihar, the northwestern part of Jharkhand, and the Purvanchal region of Uttar Pradesh , as well as adjoining parts of the Nepal Terai. Bhojpuri is also spoken in Guyana,...
continue to be important; although Maithili is now considered a separate language, it was long considered a variety of
BihariBihari is a name given to the western group of Eastern Indic languages, spoken in Bihar and neighboring states in India. Angika, Bajjika, Bhojpuri, Magahi, and Maithili are spoken in Nepal as well. The Angika, Bajjika, Bhojpuri, Magahi and Maithili speaking population form more than 21% of Nepalese...
and thus a dialect of Hindi.
Adi kaal or Veer Gatha kaal (आदिकाल या वीरगाथा काल) (1050 to 1375)
In the ancient period of Hindi or Adi Kaal (before 1400
CECommon Era ,abbreviated as CE, is an alternative designation for the calendar era originally introduced by Dionysius Exiguus in the 6th century, traditionally identified with Anno Domini .Dates before the year 1 CE are indicated by the usage of BCE, short for Before the Common Era Common Era...
), Hindi literature was developed in the states of
KannaujKannauj , also spelt Kanauj, is a city, administrative headquarters and a municipal board or Nagar Palika Parishad in Kannauj district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. The city's name is traditionally derived from the term Kanyakubja . Kannauj is an ancient city, in earlier times the capital...
,
DelhiDelhi , officially National Capital Territory of Delhi , is the largest metropolis by area and the second-largest by population in India, next to Mumbai. It is the eighth largest metropolis in the world by population with 16,753,265 inhabitants in the Territory at the 2011 Census...
,
AjmerAjmer , formerly written as Ajmere, is a city in Ajmer District in Rajasthan state in India. Ajmer has a population of around 800,000 , and is located west of the Rajasthan state capital Jaipur, 200 km from Jodhpur, 274 km from Udaipur, 439 km from Jaisalmer, and 391 km from...
, stretching up to central India, modern
Madhya PradeshMadhya Pradesh , often called the Heart of India, is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal and Indore is the largest city....
.
DelhiDelhi , officially National Capital Territory of Delhi , is the largest metropolis by area and the second-largest by population in India, next to Mumbai. It is the eighth largest metropolis in the world by population with 16,753,265 inhabitants in the Territory at the 2011 Census...
was ruled by Prithviraj Chauhan (1168-1192 CE), that is when his court poet,
Chand BardaiChand Bardai was the court poet of the Indian king Prithviraj III Chauhan, who ruled Ajmer and Delhi from 1165 to 1192. A native of Lahore, Chand Bardai composed the Prithviraj Raso, an epic poem in Hindi about the life of Prithviraj...
, composed a eulogy to him, titled
Prithviraj RasoThe Prithviraj Raso or Prithvirajaraso is an epic poem composed by court poet, Chand Bardai, on the life of Prithviraj III, a Chauhan king who ruled Ajmer and Delhi between 1165 and 1192.Chand Bardai claimed to be contemporary of Prithviraj Chauhan.The historicity of Prithviraj Raso was proved...
, which was considered one of the first works in the History of Hindi Literature.
KannaujKannauj , also spelt Kanauj, is a city, administrative headquarters and a municipal board or Nagar Palika Parishad in Kannauj district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. The city's name is traditionally derived from the term Kanyakubja . Kannauj is an ancient city, in earlier times the capital...
's last
RathoreThe Rathore is a Suryavanshi Rajput clan same caste as Lohana. Their Kuldevi is Nagnechiya Mata and "Karani Mata". Rathores are originally from Kannauj in Uttar Pradesh. Rathores are historically considered the samurais of India...
ruler was Jayachand, who gave more patronage to
SanskritSanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Buddhism: besides Pali, see Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand...
(which was no longer the common man's language). His court poet was Harsha (whose major poetic work was Naishdhiya Charitra).
MahobaMahoba is a city and Mahoba District of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, in the Bundelkhand region. Mahoba is known for its closeness to Khajuraho, Laundi and other historic places like Kulpahar, Charkhari, Kalinjar, Orchha, and Jhansi...
's royal poet Jagnayak (or Jagnik) and
AjmerAjmer , formerly written as Ajmere, is a city in Ajmer District in Rajasthan state in India. Ajmer has a population of around 800,000 , and is located west of the Rajasthan state capital Jaipur, 200 km from Jodhpur, 274 km from Udaipur, 439 km from Jaisalmer, and 391 km from...
's Nalha were other literary figures in this period. However, after Prithviraj Chauhan's defeat, most literary works belonging to this period were destroyed during Muhammad Ghori's campaign. Very few scriptures or manuscripts from this period are available and their genuineness is also doubted.
Some
SiddhaA Siddha सिद्ध in Sanskrit means "one who is accomplished" and refers to perfected masters who, according to Hindu belief, have transcended the ahamkara , have subdued their minds to be subservient to their Awareness, and have transformed their bodies into a different kind of body dominated by...
and Nathpanthi poets' works belonging to this period are also found, but their genuineness is again, doubted. Siddhas belonged to
VajrayanaVajrayāna Buddhism is also known as Tantric Buddhism, Tantrayāna, Mantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Esoteric Buddhism and the Diamond Vehicle...
, a later Buddhist cult. Many argue that the language of Siddha poetry is not earlier Hindi, but Magadhi
PrakritPrakrit is the name for a group of Middle Indic, Indo-Aryan languages, derived from Old Indic dialects. The word itself has a flexible definition, being defined sometimes as, "original, natural, artless, normal, ordinary, usual", or "vernacular", in contrast to the literary and religious...
. Nathpanthis were
yogisYoga is a physical, mental, and spiritual discipline, originating in ancient India. The goal of yoga, or of the person practicing yoga, is the attainment of a state of perfect spiritual insight and tranquility while meditating on Supersoul...
who practised
Hatha yogaHatha yoga , also called hatha vidya , is a system of yoga introduced by Yogi Swatmarama, a Hindu sage of 15th century India, and compiler of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika....
. Some Jain and Rasau (heroic poets) poetry works are also available from this period.
In the Deccan region in South India, Dakkhini or Hindavi was used. It flourished under the
Delhi SultanateThe Delhi Sultanate is a term used to cover five short-lived, Delhi based kingdoms or sultanates, of Turkic origin in medieval India. The sultanates ruled from Delhi between 1206 and 1526, when the last was replaced by the Mughal dynasty...
and later under the
NizamNizam-ul-Mulk of Hyderabad popularly known as Nizams of Hyderabad was a former monarchy of the Hyderabad State, now in the states of Andhra Pradesh , Karnataka , and Maharashtra in India...
s of
Hyderabad-After Indian independence :When India gained independence in 1947 and Pakistan came into existence in 1947, the British left the local rulers of the princely states the choice of whether to join one of the new dominions or to remain independent...
. It was written in the
PersianPersian is an Iranian language within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan and countries which historically came under Persian influence...
script. Nevertheless, the Hindavi literature can be considered as proto-Hindi literature. Many Deccani experts like Sheikh Ashraf or Mulla Vajahi used the word Hindavi to describe this dialect. Others such as Roustami, Nishati etc. preferred to call it Deccani. Shah Buharnuddin Janam Bijapuri used to call it Hindi. The first Deccani author was Khwaja Bandanawaz Gesudaraz Muhammad Hasan. He wrote three prose works - Mirazul Aashkini, Hidayatnama and Risala Sehwara. His grandson Abdulla Hussaini wrote Nishatul Ishq. The first Deccani poet was Nizami.
During the later part of this period and early Bhakti Kala, many saint-poets like Ramanand and Gorakhnath became famous. The earliest form of Hindi can also be seen in some of
VidyapatiVidyapati Thakur , also known by the sobriquet Maithil Kavi Kokil was a Maithili poet and a Sanskrit writer. He was born in the village of Bishphi in Madhubani district of Bihar state, India. He was son of Ganapati...
's Maithili works.
Bhakti Kaal (भक्तिकाल)(1375 to 1700)
The medieval Hindi literature is marked by the influence of
BhaktiIn Hinduism Bhakti is religious devotion in the form of active involvement of a devotee in worship of the divine.Within monotheistic Hinduism, it is the love felt by the worshipper towards the personal God, a concept expressed in Hindu theology as Svayam Bhagavan.Bhakti can be used of either...
movement and composition of long, epic poems.
Avadhi and
Brij BhashaBraj Bhasha , also called Brij Bhasha , Braj Bhakha , or Dehaati Zabaan , is a Central Indian language closely related to Hindi...
were the dialects in which literature was developed. The main works in Avadhi are
Malik Muhammad JayasiMalik Muhammad Jayasi was an Indian poet who wrote in the Avadhi dialect of Hindi.He hailed from Jais, presently a city in the Rae Bareli district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh...
's Padmavat and
TulsidasTulsidas , was a Hindu poet-saint, reformer and philosopher renowned for his devotion for the god Rama...
's
RamacharitamanasShri Ramcharitmanas , also spelt Shri Ramcharitamanasa, is an epic poem in Awadhi, composed by the 16th-century Indian poet, Goswami Tulsidas...
. The major works in Braj dialect are
TulsidasTulsidas , was a Hindu poet-saint, reformer and philosopher renowned for his devotion for the god Rama...
's
Vinaya PatrikaVinaya Patrika is a devotional poem composed by the 16th-century Indian poet, Goswami Tulsidas , containing hymns to different Hindu deities especially to Lord Rama in extreme humility .Vinaya Patrika is an important work of medieval Hindi Literature and Bhakti...
and
SurdasSurdas, the 15th century sightless saint, poet and musician, is known for his devotional songs dedicated to Lord Krishna. Surdas is said to have written and composed a hundred thousand songs in his magnum opus the 'Sur Sagar' , out of which only about 8,000 are extant...
's Sur Sagar.
SadhukaddiSadhukaddi, a popular language of medieval India, is a vernacular dialect of Hindi/ Hindustani which is a mix of Hindi , Braj Bhasha, Awadhi, Bhojpuri and Rajasthani, hence it is also commonly called a Panchmail Khichadi....
was also a language commonly used, especially by
KabirKabīr was a mystic poet and saint of India, whose writings have greatly influenced the Bhakti movement...
in his poetry and dohas.
The Bhakti period also marked great theoretical development in poetry forms chiefly from a mixture of older forms of poetry in Sanskrit School and the Persian School. These included Verse Patterns like Doha (two-liners), Sortha, Chaupaya (four-liners) etc. This was also the age when Poetry was characterized under the various Rasas. Unlike the Adi Kaal (also called the Vir Gatha Kaal) which was characterized by an overdose of Poetry in the Vir Rasa (Heroic Poetry), the Bhakti Yug marked a much more diverse and vibrant form of poetry which spanned the whole gamut of
rasas from Shringara rasa (love), Vir Rasa (Heroism).
Bhakti poetry had two schools - the Nirguna school (the believers of a formless God or an abstract name) and the Saguna school (the believers of a God with attributes and worshippers of Vishnu's incarnations).
KabirKabīr was a mystic poet and saint of India, whose writings have greatly influenced the Bhakti movement...
and Guru Nanak belong to the Nirguna school, and their philosophy was greatly influenced by the
Advaita VedantaAdvaita Vedanta is considered to be the most influential and most dominant sub-school of the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy. Other major sub-schools of Vedānta are Dvaita and ; while the minor ones include Suddhadvaita, Dvaitadvaita and Achintya Bhedabheda...
philosophy of Adi Sankaracharya. They believed in the concept of Nirgun Nirakaar Bramh or the Shapeless Formless One. The Saguna school was represented by mainly Vaishnava poets like
SurdasSurdas, the 15th century sightless saint, poet and musician, is known for his devotional songs dedicated to Lord Krishna. Surdas is said to have written and composed a hundred thousand songs in his magnum opus the 'Sur Sagar' , out of which only about 8,000 are extant...
,
TulsidasTulsidas , was a Hindu poet-saint, reformer and philosopher renowned for his devotion for the god Rama...
and others and was a logical extension of the Dvaita and Vishishta Advaita Philosophy propounded by the likes of Madhavacharya etc. This school was chiefly Vaishnava in orientation as in seen in the main compositions like
RamacharitamanasShri Ramcharitmanas , also spelt Shri Ramcharitamanasa, is an epic poem in Awadhi, composed by the 16th-century Indian poet, Goswami Tulsidas...
, Sur Saravali, Sur Sagar extoling
RamaRama or full name Ramachandra is considered to be the seventh avatar of Vishnu in Hinduism, and a king of Ayodhya in ancient Indian...
and
KrishnaKrishna is a central figure of Hinduism and is traditionally attributed the authorship of the Bhagavad Gita. He is the supreme Being and considered in some monotheistic traditions as an Avatar of Vishnu...
.
This was also the age of tremendous integration between the Hindu and the
IslamIslam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
ic elements in the Arts with the advent of many Muslim Bhakti poets like
Abdul Rahim Khan-I-KhanaKhanzada Mirza Khan Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana , also known as Rahim was a composer in the times of Mughal emperor Akbar, and one of his main nine ministers in his court, also known as the Navaratnas; he is most known for his Hindi couplets and his books on Astrology...
who was a court poet to
MughalThe Mughal Empire , or Mogul Empire in traditional English usage, was an imperial power from the Indian Subcontinent. The Mughal emperors were descendants of the Timurids...
emperor Akbar and was a great devotee of Krishna. The Nirgun School of Bhakti Poetry was also tremendously secular in nature and its propounders like Kabir and Guru Nanak had a large number of followers irrespective of caste or religion.
it is all about period of veer ras
Ritikavya Kaal (रीतिकाल)(1700 to 1900)
In Ritikavya or Ritismagra Kavya period, the erotic element became predominant in
HindiStandard Hindi, or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi, also known as Manak Hindi , High Hindi, Nagari Hindi, and Literary Hindi, is a standardized and sanskritized register of the Hindustani language derived from the Khariboli dialect of Delhi...
literature. This era is called Riti (meaning 'procedure') because it was the age when poetic figures and theory were developed to the fullest. But this emphasis on poetry theory greatly reduced the emotional sspects of poetry—the main characteristic of the Bhakti movement—and the actual content of the poetry became less important. The Saguna School of the Bhakti Yug split into two schools (Rama bhakti and Krishna bhakti) somewhere in the interregnum of the Bhakti and the Reeti Eras. Although most Reeti works were outwordly related to
KrishnaKrishna is a central figure of Hinduism and is traditionally attributed the authorship of the Bhagavad Gita. He is the supreme Being and considered in some monotheistic traditions as an Avatar of Vishnu...
BhaktiIn Hinduism Bhakti is religious devotion in the form of active involvement of a devotee in worship of the divine.Within monotheistic Hinduism, it is the love felt by the worshipper towards the personal God, a concept expressed in Hindu theology as Svayam Bhagavan.Bhakti can be used of either...
, their emphasis had changed from total devotion to the supreme being to the
Shringar or erotic aspects of Krishna's life—his Leela, his pranks with the Gopis in
BrajBraj is a region mainly in Uttar Pradesh of India, around Mathura-Vrindavan. Braj, though never a clearly defined political region in India but is very well demarcated culturally, is considered to be the land of Krishna and is derived from the Sanskrit word vraja...
, and the description of the physical beauty of
KrishnaKrishna is a central figure of Hinduism and is traditionally attributed the authorship of the Bhagavad Gita. He is the supreme Being and considered in some monotheistic traditions as an Avatar of Vishnu...
and
RadhaRadha , also called Radhika, Radharani and Radhikarani, is the childhood friend and lover of Krishna in the Bhagavata Purana, and the Gita Govinda of the Vaisnava traditions of Hinduism...
,(Krishna's Consort). The poetry of Bihari, and Ghananand Das fit this bill. The most well known book from this age is the
Bihari SatsaiThe Satasai or Bihari Satsai is a famous work of the early 17th century by the Hindi poet Bihārī, in the Braj Bhasha dialect of Hindi spoken in the Braj region of northern India...
of Bihari, a collection of Dohas (couplets), dealing with
BhaktiIn Hinduism Bhakti is religious devotion in the form of active involvement of a devotee in worship of the divine.Within monotheistic Hinduism, it is the love felt by the worshipper towards the personal God, a concept expressed in Hindu theology as Svayam Bhagavan.Bhakti can be used of either...
(devotion), Neeti (Moral policies) and Shringar (love).
Adhunik Kaal: 1900 onwards
In 1800, the
British East India CompanyThe East India Company was an early English joint-stock company that was formed initially for pursuing trade with the East Indies, but that ended up trading mainly with the Indian subcontinent and China...
established
Fort William CollegeFort William College was an academy and learning centre of Oriental studies established by Lord Wellesley, then Governor-General of British India. It was founded on July 10, 1800 within the Fort William complex in Calcutta...
at Calcutta. The College President
J. B. GilchristJohn Borthwick Gilchrist FRSE was a Scottish surgeon and Indologist.-Early life:Gilchrist was born in Edinburgh to merchant Walter Gilchrist, who disappeared the year he was born...
hired professors to write books in Hindi and Urdu. Some of these books were
Prem Sagar by Lallu Lal, Naasiketopaakhyan by Sadal Mishra, Sukhsagar by Sadasukhlal of Delhi and Rani Ketaki ki kahani by Munshi Inshallah Khan.
The person who brought realism in the Hindi prose literature was
Munshi PremchandMunshi Premchand , was a famous writer of modern Hindi-Urdu literature. He is generally recognized in India as the foremost Hindi-Urdu writer of the early twentieth century...
, who is considered as the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement. Before Premchand, the Hindi literature revolved around fairy or magical tales, entertaining stories and religious themes. Premchand's novels have been translated into many other languages.
Dwivedi Yug (द्विवेदी युग)
The Dwivedi Yug ("Age of Dwivedi") in Hindi literature lasted from 1900 to 1918.It is named after
Mahavir Prasad DwivediMahavir Prasad Dwivedi was a noted Indian Hindi writer. Adhunikkaal, or the Modern period of the Hindi literature is divided into four phases, and he represents the second phase, known as the Dwivedi Yug after him, which was preceded by the Bharatendu Yug , followed by the Chhayavad Yug and the...
, who played a major role in establishing modern Hindi language in poetry and broadening the acceptable subjects of Hindi poetry from the traditional ones of religion and romantic love. He encouraged poetry in Hindi dedicated to nationalism and social reform.
Dwivedi became the editor of Sarasvati in 1903 and used it to crusade for reforms in Hindi literature. One of the most prominent poems of the period was Maithilisharan Gupta's Bharat-bharati, which evokes the past glory of India. Shridhar Prathak's Bharatgit is another renowned poem of the period.
Some scholars have labeled much of the poetry of this period as "versified propaganda". According to Lucy Rosenstein: "It is verse of public statement; its language is functional but aesthetically unappealing. Earnest, concerned with social issues and moral values, it is puritanical poetry in which aesthetic considerations are secondary. Imagination, originality, poetic sensibility and expression are wanting, the metre is restrictive, the idiom clumsy." She adds, however, that the period was important for laying the foundations for modern Hindi poetry, it did reflect sensitivity to social issues of the time, and the inelegance is a typical feature of a "young" poetry, as she considers Modern Hindi.
Without a poetic tradition in modern Hindi, poets often modeled their forms on Braj, and later on Sanskrit, Urdu, Bengali and English forms, often ill-suited to Hindi. The subjects of the poems tended to be communal rather than personal. Characters were often presented not as individuals but as social types.
Chhayavaadi Yug (छायावाद) -
{{Distinguish2|Hindu literature, the specific literature of the Hindu religious tradition.}}
Hindi literature ({{lang-hi|हिन्दी साहित्य}}), is broadly divided into four prominent forms or styles, being
BhaktiIn Hinduism Bhakti is religious devotion in the form of active involvement of a devotee in worship of the divine.Within monotheistic Hinduism, it is the love felt by the worshipper towards the personal God, a concept expressed in Hindu theology as Svayam Bhagavan.Bhakti can be used of either...
(devotional - Kabir, Raskhan); Shringar (beauty - Keshav, Bihari); Veer-Gatha (extolling brave warriors); and Adhunik (modern). It includes literature in the various
Hindi languagesThe Hindi languages, also known as Madhya and the Central Zone of the Indo-Aryan languages, is a subset of the varieties of Hindi spoken across northern India that descend from the Madhya prakrits, and includes the official languages of India and Pakistan, Hindi and Urdu...
which have written forms.
{{History of literature5}}
Regions and dialects
{{Main|Hindi languages}}
Modern Standard Hindi, one of the official languages of India according to the
Constitution of IndiaThe Constitution of India is the supreme law of India. It lays down the framework defining fundamental political principles, establishes the structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government institutions, and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles, and the duties of citizens...
, (Article 343), is only the basis of modern literature, from the 19th century. Earlier Hindi literature was based on other
Hindi languagesThe Hindi languages, also known as Madhya and the Central Zone of the Indo-Aryan languages, is a subset of the varieties of Hindi spoken across northern India that descend from the Madhya prakrits, and includes the official languages of India and Pakistan, Hindi and Urdu...
, including the dialects of Braj Bhasha,
BundeliBundeli is a Western Hindi language spoken in the Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh and in southern parts of Uttar Pradesh...
,
AwadhiAwadhi is an Indo-Aryan language, part of the Hindi-Urdu continuum. It is spoken chiefly in the Awadh region of Uttar Pradesh, although its speakers are also found in Madhya Pradesh, Delhi and Nepal. Furthermore, the Fiji Hindi dialect spoken by Indo-Fijians is considered a variant of Awadhi,...
,
KannaujiKannauji language is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in parts of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh...
, and
KhariboliKhariboli , also Khari Boli, Khadiboli, Khadi Boli or simply Khari, is a Western Hindi dialect spoken mainly in the rural surroundings of Delhi, the northern areas of Western Uttar Pradesh and the southern areas of Uttarakhand in India...
in Devnagari script. In addition, regional Hindi languages such as
MarwariThe Marwari language , also variously Marvari, Marwadi, Marvadi), is spoken in the Indian state of Rajasthan. Marwari is also found in the neighboring state of Gujarat and Haryana and in Eastern Pakistan...
,
MaithiliMaithili language is spoken in the eastern region of India and South-eastern region of Nepal. The native speakers of Maithili reside in Bihar, Jharkhand,parts of West Bengal and South-east Nepal...
, Magahi, Angika, Vajjika and
BhojpuriBhojpuri is a language spoken in parts of north-central and eastern India. It is spoken in the western part of state of Bihar, the northwestern part of Jharkhand, and the Purvanchal region of Uttar Pradesh , as well as adjoining parts of the Nepal Terai. Bhojpuri is also spoken in Guyana,...
continue to be important; although Maithili is now considered a separate language, it was long considered a variety of
BihariBihari is a name given to the western group of Eastern Indic languages, spoken in Bihar and neighboring states in India. Angika, Bajjika, Bhojpuri, Magahi, and Maithili are spoken in Nepal as well. The Angika, Bajjika, Bhojpuri, Magahi and Maithili speaking population form more than 21% of Nepalese...
and thus a dialect of Hindi.
Adi kaal or Veer Gatha kaal (आदिकाल या वीरगाथा काल) (1050 to 1375)
In the ancient period of Hindi or Adi Kaal (before 1400
CECommon Era ,abbreviated as CE, is an alternative designation for the calendar era originally introduced by Dionysius Exiguus in the 6th century, traditionally identified with Anno Domini .Dates before the year 1 CE are indicated by the usage of BCE, short for Before the Common Era Common Era...
), Hindi literature was developed in the states of
KannaujKannauj , also spelt Kanauj, is a city, administrative headquarters and a municipal board or Nagar Palika Parishad in Kannauj district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. The city's name is traditionally derived from the term Kanyakubja . Kannauj is an ancient city, in earlier times the capital...
,
DelhiDelhi , officially National Capital Territory of Delhi , is the largest metropolis by area and the second-largest by population in India, next to Mumbai. It is the eighth largest metropolis in the world by population with 16,753,265 inhabitants in the Territory at the 2011 Census...
,
AjmerAjmer , formerly written as Ajmere, is a city in Ajmer District in Rajasthan state in India. Ajmer has a population of around 800,000 , and is located west of the Rajasthan state capital Jaipur, 200 km from Jodhpur, 274 km from Udaipur, 439 km from Jaisalmer, and 391 km from...
, stretching up to central India, modern
Madhya PradeshMadhya Pradesh , often called the Heart of India, is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal and Indore is the largest city....
.
DelhiDelhi , officially National Capital Territory of Delhi , is the largest metropolis by area and the second-largest by population in India, next to Mumbai. It is the eighth largest metropolis in the world by population with 16,753,265 inhabitants in the Territory at the 2011 Census...
was ruled by Prithviraj Chauhan (1168-1192 CE), that is when his court poet,
Chand BardaiChand Bardai was the court poet of the Indian king Prithviraj III Chauhan, who ruled Ajmer and Delhi from 1165 to 1192. A native of Lahore, Chand Bardai composed the Prithviraj Raso, an epic poem in Hindi about the life of Prithviraj...
, composed a eulogy to him, titled
Prithviraj RasoThe Prithviraj Raso or Prithvirajaraso is an epic poem composed by court poet, Chand Bardai, on the life of Prithviraj III, a Chauhan king who ruled Ajmer and Delhi between 1165 and 1192.Chand Bardai claimed to be contemporary of Prithviraj Chauhan.The historicity of Prithviraj Raso was proved...
, which was considered one of the first works in the History of Hindi Literature.
KannaujKannauj , also spelt Kanauj, is a city, administrative headquarters and a municipal board or Nagar Palika Parishad in Kannauj district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. The city's name is traditionally derived from the term Kanyakubja . Kannauj is an ancient city, in earlier times the capital...
's last
RathoreThe Rathore is a Suryavanshi Rajput clan same caste as Lohana. Their Kuldevi is Nagnechiya Mata and "Karani Mata". Rathores are originally from Kannauj in Uttar Pradesh. Rathores are historically considered the samurais of India...
ruler was Jayachand, who gave more patronage to
SanskritSanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Buddhism: besides Pali, see Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand...
(which was no longer the common man's language). His court poet was Harsha (whose major poetic work was Naishdhiya Charitra).
MahobaMahoba is a city and Mahoba District of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, in the Bundelkhand region. Mahoba is known for its closeness to Khajuraho, Laundi and other historic places like Kulpahar, Charkhari, Kalinjar, Orchha, and Jhansi...
's royal poet Jagnayak (or Jagnik) and
AjmerAjmer , formerly written as Ajmere, is a city in Ajmer District in Rajasthan state in India. Ajmer has a population of around 800,000 , and is located west of the Rajasthan state capital Jaipur, 200 km from Jodhpur, 274 km from Udaipur, 439 km from Jaisalmer, and 391 km from...
's Nalha were other literary figures in this period. However, after Prithviraj Chauhan's defeat, most literary works belonging to this period were destroyed during Muhammad Ghori's campaign. Very few scriptures or manuscripts from this period are available and their genuineness is also doubted.
Some
SiddhaA Siddha सिद्ध in Sanskrit means "one who is accomplished" and refers to perfected masters who, according to Hindu belief, have transcended the ahamkara , have subdued their minds to be subservient to their Awareness, and have transformed their bodies into a different kind of body dominated by...
and Nathpanthi poets' works belonging to this period are also found, but their genuineness is again, doubted. Siddhas belonged to
VajrayanaVajrayāna Buddhism is also known as Tantric Buddhism, Tantrayāna, Mantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Esoteric Buddhism and the Diamond Vehicle...
, a later Buddhist cult. Many argue that the language of Siddha poetry is not earlier Hindi, but Magadhi
PrakritPrakrit is the name for a group of Middle Indic, Indo-Aryan languages, derived from Old Indic dialects. The word itself has a flexible definition, being defined sometimes as, "original, natural, artless, normal, ordinary, usual", or "vernacular", in contrast to the literary and religious...
. Nathpanthis were
yogisYoga is a physical, mental, and spiritual discipline, originating in ancient India. The goal of yoga, or of the person practicing yoga, is the attainment of a state of perfect spiritual insight and tranquility while meditating on Supersoul...
who practised
Hatha yogaHatha yoga , also called hatha vidya , is a system of yoga introduced by Yogi Swatmarama, a Hindu sage of 15th century India, and compiler of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika....
. Some Jain and Rasau (heroic poets) poetry works are also available from this period.
In the Deccan region in South India, Dakkhini or Hindavi was used. It flourished under the
Delhi SultanateThe Delhi Sultanate is a term used to cover five short-lived, Delhi based kingdoms or sultanates, of Turkic origin in medieval India. The sultanates ruled from Delhi between 1206 and 1526, when the last was replaced by the Mughal dynasty...
and later under the
NizamNizam-ul-Mulk of Hyderabad popularly known as Nizams of Hyderabad was a former monarchy of the Hyderabad State, now in the states of Andhra Pradesh , Karnataka , and Maharashtra in India...
s of
Hyderabad-After Indian independence :When India gained independence in 1947 and Pakistan came into existence in 1947, the British left the local rulers of the princely states the choice of whether to join one of the new dominions or to remain independent...
. It was written in the
PersianPersian is an Iranian language within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan and countries which historically came under Persian influence...
script. Nevertheless, the Hindavi literature can be considered as proto-Hindi literature. Many Deccani experts like Sheikh Ashraf or Mulla Vajahi used the word Hindavi to describe this dialect. Others such as Roustami, Nishati etc. preferred to call it Deccani. Shah Buharnuddin Janam Bijapuri used to call it Hindi. The first Deccani author was Khwaja Bandanawaz Gesudaraz Muhammad Hasan. He wrote three prose works - Mirazul Aashkini, Hidayatnama and Risala Sehwara. His grandson Abdulla Hussaini wrote Nishatul Ishq. The first Deccani poet was Nizami.
During the later part of this period and early Bhakti Kala, many saint-poets like Ramanand and Gorakhnath became famous. The earliest form of Hindi can also be seen in some of
VidyapatiVidyapati Thakur , also known by the sobriquet Maithil Kavi Kokil was a Maithili poet and a Sanskrit writer. He was born in the village of Bishphi in Madhubani district of Bihar state, India. He was son of Ganapati...
's Maithili works.
Bhakti Kaal (भक्तिकाल)(1375 to 1700)
The medieval Hindi literature is marked by the influence of
BhaktiIn Hinduism Bhakti is religious devotion in the form of active involvement of a devotee in worship of the divine.Within monotheistic Hinduism, it is the love felt by the worshipper towards the personal God, a concept expressed in Hindu theology as Svayam Bhagavan.Bhakti can be used of either...
movement and composition of long, epic poems.
Avadhi and
Brij BhashaBraj Bhasha , also called Brij Bhasha , Braj Bhakha , or Dehaati Zabaan , is a Central Indian language closely related to Hindi...
were the dialects in which literature was developed. The main works in Avadhi are
Malik Muhammad JayasiMalik Muhammad Jayasi was an Indian poet who wrote in the Avadhi dialect of Hindi.He hailed from Jais, presently a city in the Rae Bareli district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh...
's Padmavat and
TulsidasTulsidas , was a Hindu poet-saint, reformer and philosopher renowned for his devotion for the god Rama...
's
RamacharitamanasShri Ramcharitmanas , also spelt Shri Ramcharitamanasa, is an epic poem in Awadhi, composed by the 16th-century Indian poet, Goswami Tulsidas...
. The major works in Braj dialect are
TulsidasTulsidas , was a Hindu poet-saint, reformer and philosopher renowned for his devotion for the god Rama...
's
Vinaya PatrikaVinaya Patrika is a devotional poem composed by the 16th-century Indian poet, Goswami Tulsidas , containing hymns to different Hindu deities especially to Lord Rama in extreme humility .Vinaya Patrika is an important work of medieval Hindi Literature and Bhakti...
and
SurdasSurdas, the 15th century sightless saint, poet and musician, is known for his devotional songs dedicated to Lord Krishna. Surdas is said to have written and composed a hundred thousand songs in his magnum opus the 'Sur Sagar' , out of which only about 8,000 are extant...
's Sur Sagar.
SadhukaddiSadhukaddi, a popular language of medieval India, is a vernacular dialect of Hindi/ Hindustani which is a mix of Hindi , Braj Bhasha, Awadhi, Bhojpuri and Rajasthani, hence it is also commonly called a Panchmail Khichadi....
was also a language commonly used, especially by
KabirKabīr was a mystic poet and saint of India, whose writings have greatly influenced the Bhakti movement...
in his poetry and dohas.
The Bhakti period also marked great theoretical development in poetry forms chiefly from a mixture of older forms of poetry in Sanskrit School and the Persian School. These included Verse Patterns like Doha (two-liners), Sortha, Chaupaya (four-liners) etc. This was also the age when Poetry was characterized under the various Rasas. Unlike the Adi Kaal (also called the Vir Gatha Kaal) which was characterized by an overdose of Poetry in the Vir Rasa (Heroic Poetry), the Bhakti Yug marked a much more diverse and vibrant form of poetry which spanned the whole gamut of
rasas from Shringara rasa (love), Vir Rasa (Heroism).
Bhakti poetry had two schools - the Nirguna school (the believers of a formless God or an abstract name) and the Saguna school (the believers of a God with attributes and worshippers of Vishnu's incarnations).
KabirKabīr was a mystic poet and saint of India, whose writings have greatly influenced the Bhakti movement...
and Guru Nanak belong to the Nirguna school, and their philosophy was greatly influenced by the
Advaita VedantaAdvaita Vedanta is considered to be the most influential and most dominant sub-school of the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy. Other major sub-schools of Vedānta are Dvaita and ; while the minor ones include Suddhadvaita, Dvaitadvaita and Achintya Bhedabheda...
philosophy of Adi Sankaracharya. They believed in the concept of Nirgun Nirakaar Bramh or the Shapeless Formless One. The Saguna school was represented by mainly Vaishnava poets like
SurdasSurdas, the 15th century sightless saint, poet and musician, is known for his devotional songs dedicated to Lord Krishna. Surdas is said to have written and composed a hundred thousand songs in his magnum opus the 'Sur Sagar' , out of which only about 8,000 are extant...
,
TulsidasTulsidas , was a Hindu poet-saint, reformer and philosopher renowned for his devotion for the god Rama...
and others and was a logical extension of the Dvaita and Vishishta Advaita Philosophy propounded by the likes of Madhavacharya etc. This school was chiefly Vaishnava in orientation as in seen in the main compositions like
RamacharitamanasShri Ramcharitmanas , also spelt Shri Ramcharitamanasa, is an epic poem in Awadhi, composed by the 16th-century Indian poet, Goswami Tulsidas...
, Sur Saravali, Sur Sagar extoling
RamaRama or full name Ramachandra is considered to be the seventh avatar of Vishnu in Hinduism, and a king of Ayodhya in ancient Indian...
and
KrishnaKrishna is a central figure of Hinduism and is traditionally attributed the authorship of the Bhagavad Gita. He is the supreme Being and considered in some monotheistic traditions as an Avatar of Vishnu...
.
This was also the age of tremendous integration between the Hindu and the
IslamIslam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
ic elements in the Arts with the advent of many Muslim Bhakti poets like
Abdul Rahim Khan-I-KhanaKhanzada Mirza Khan Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana , also known as Rahim was a composer in the times of Mughal emperor Akbar, and one of his main nine ministers in his court, also known as the Navaratnas; he is most known for his Hindi couplets and his books on Astrology...
who was a court poet to
MughalThe Mughal Empire , or Mogul Empire in traditional English usage, was an imperial power from the Indian Subcontinent. The Mughal emperors were descendants of the Timurids...
emperor Akbar and was a great devotee of Krishna. The Nirgun School of Bhakti Poetry was also tremendously secular in nature and its propounders like Kabir and Guru Nanak had a large number of followers irrespective of caste or religion.
it is all about period of veer ras
Ritikavya Kaal (रीतिकाल)(1700 to 1900)
In Ritikavya or Ritismagra Kavya period, the erotic element became predominant in
HindiStandard Hindi, or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi, also known as Manak Hindi , High Hindi, Nagari Hindi, and Literary Hindi, is a standardized and sanskritized register of the Hindustani language derived from the Khariboli dialect of Delhi...
literature. This era is called Riti (meaning 'procedure') because it was the age when poetic figures and theory were developed to the fullest. But this emphasis on poetry theory greatly reduced the emotional sspects of poetry—the main characteristic of the Bhakti movement—and the actual content of the poetry became less important. The Saguna School of the Bhakti Yug split into two schools (Rama bhakti and Krishna bhakti) somewhere in the interregnum of the Bhakti and the Reeti Eras. Although most Reeti works were outwordly related to
KrishnaKrishna is a central figure of Hinduism and is traditionally attributed the authorship of the Bhagavad Gita. He is the supreme Being and considered in some monotheistic traditions as an Avatar of Vishnu...
BhaktiIn Hinduism Bhakti is religious devotion in the form of active involvement of a devotee in worship of the divine.Within monotheistic Hinduism, it is the love felt by the worshipper towards the personal God, a concept expressed in Hindu theology as Svayam Bhagavan.Bhakti can be used of either...
, their emphasis had changed from total devotion to the supreme being to the
Shringar or erotic aspects of Krishna's life—his Leela, his pranks with the Gopis in
BrajBraj is a region mainly in Uttar Pradesh of India, around Mathura-Vrindavan. Braj, though never a clearly defined political region in India but is very well demarcated culturally, is considered to be the land of Krishna and is derived from the Sanskrit word vraja...
, and the description of the physical beauty of
KrishnaKrishna is a central figure of Hinduism and is traditionally attributed the authorship of the Bhagavad Gita. He is the supreme Being and considered in some monotheistic traditions as an Avatar of Vishnu...
and
RadhaRadha , also called Radhika, Radharani and Radhikarani, is the childhood friend and lover of Krishna in the Bhagavata Purana, and the Gita Govinda of the Vaisnava traditions of Hinduism...
,(Krishna's Consort). The poetry of Bihari, and Ghananand Das fit this bill. The most well known book from this age is the
Bihari SatsaiThe Satasai or Bihari Satsai is a famous work of the early 17th century by the Hindi poet Bihārī, in the Braj Bhasha dialect of Hindi spoken in the Braj region of northern India...
of Bihari, a collection of Dohas (couplets), dealing with
BhaktiIn Hinduism Bhakti is religious devotion in the form of active involvement of a devotee in worship of the divine.Within monotheistic Hinduism, it is the love felt by the worshipper towards the personal God, a concept expressed in Hindu theology as Svayam Bhagavan.Bhakti can be used of either...
(devotion), Neeti (Moral policies) and Shringar (love).
Adhunik Kaal: 1900 onwards
In 1800, the
British East India CompanyThe East India Company was an early English joint-stock company that was formed initially for pursuing trade with the East Indies, but that ended up trading mainly with the Indian subcontinent and China...
established
Fort William CollegeFort William College was an academy and learning centre of Oriental studies established by Lord Wellesley, then Governor-General of British India. It was founded on July 10, 1800 within the Fort William complex in Calcutta...
at Calcutta. The College President
J. B. GilchristJohn Borthwick Gilchrist FRSE was a Scottish surgeon and Indologist.-Early life:Gilchrist was born in Edinburgh to merchant Walter Gilchrist, who disappeared the year he was born...
hired professors to write books in Hindi and Urdu. Some of these books were
Prem Sagar by Lallu Lal, Naasiketopaakhyan by Sadal Mishra, Sukhsagar by Sadasukhlal of Delhi and Rani Ketaki ki kahani by Munshi Inshallah Khan.
The person who brought realism in the Hindi prose literature was
Munshi PremchandMunshi Premchand , was a famous writer of modern Hindi-Urdu literature. He is generally recognized in India as the foremost Hindi-Urdu writer of the early twentieth century...
, who is considered as the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement. Before Premchand, the Hindi literature revolved around fairy or magical tales, entertaining stories and religious themes. Premchand's novels have been translated into many other languages.
Dwivedi Yug (द्विवेदी युग)
The Dwivedi Yug ("Age of Dwivedi") in Hindi literature lasted from 1900 to 1918.It is named after
Mahavir Prasad DwivediMahavir Prasad Dwivedi was a noted Indian Hindi writer. Adhunikkaal, or the Modern period of the Hindi literature is divided into four phases, and he represents the second phase, known as the Dwivedi Yug after him, which was preceded by the Bharatendu Yug , followed by the Chhayavad Yug and the...
, who played a major role in establishing modern Hindi language in poetry and broadening the acceptable subjects of Hindi poetry from the traditional ones of religion and romantic love. He encouraged poetry in Hindi dedicated to nationalism and social reform.
Dwivedi became the editor of Sarasvati in 1903 and used it to crusade for reforms in Hindi literature. One of the most prominent poems of the period was Maithilisharan Gupta's Bharat-bharati, which evokes the past glory of India. Shridhar Prathak's Bharatgit is another renowned poem of the period.
Some scholars have labeled much of the poetry of this period as "versified propaganda". According to Lucy Rosenstein: "It is verse of public statement; its language is functional but aesthetically unappealing. Earnest, concerned with social issues and moral values, it is puritanical poetry in which aesthetic considerations are secondary. Imagination, originality, poetic sensibility and expression are wanting, the metre is restrictive, the idiom clumsy." She adds, however, that the period was important for laying the foundations for modern Hindi poetry, it did reflect sensitivity to social issues of the time, and the inelegance is a typical feature of a "young" poetry, as she considers Modern Hindi.
Without a poetic tradition in modern Hindi, poets often modeled their forms on Braj, and later on Sanskrit, Urdu, Bengali and English forms, often ill-suited to Hindi. The subjects of the poems tended to be communal rather than personal. Characters were often presented not as individuals but as social types.
Chhayavaadi Yug (छायावाद) -
{{Main|}
In 20th century, Hindi literature saw a romantic upsurge. This is known as
ChhayavaadChhayavaad refers to the era of Neo-romanticism in Hindi literature particularly Hindi poetry, 1917–1938, and was marked by an upsurge of romantic and humanist content. Chhayavad was marked by a renewed sense of the self and personal expression, visible in the writings of time...
(shadowism) and the literary figures belonging to this school are known as Chhayavaadi.
Jaishankar PrasadJaishankar Prasad , one of the most famous figures in modern Hindi literature as well as Hindi theatre.- Biography :...
,
Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala'Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala' was one of the most famous figures of the modern Hindi literature. He was a poet, novelist, essayist and story-writer...
,
Mahadevi VarmaMahadevi Varma best known as an outstanding Hindi poet, was a freedom fighter, woman's activist and educationist from India. She is widely regarded as the "modern Meera". She was a major poet of the Chhayavaad generation, a period of romanticism in Modern Hindi poetry ranging from 1914-1938...
and
Sumitranandan PantSumitranandan Pant was one of the most famous modern Hindi poets. He is considered one of the major poets of the Chhayavaadi school of Hindi literature. Pant mostly wrote in Sanskritized Hindi. Pant authored twenty eight published works including poetry, verse plays and essays.Pant was born at...
, are the four major Chhayavaadi poets. Poet
Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar'Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar was an Indian Hindi poet, essayist and academic, who is considered as one of the most important modern Hindi poets. He remerged as a poet of rebellion as a consequence of his nationalist poetry written in the days before Indian independence...
was another great poet with some Chayavaadi element in his poetry although he wrote in other genres as well.
This period of
Neo-romanticismThe term neo-romanticism is used to cover a variety of movements in music, painting and architecture. It has been used with reference to very late 19th century and early 20th century composers such as Gustav Mahler particularly by Carl Dahlhaus who uses it as synonymous with late Romanticism...
, represents the adolescence of Hindi Poetry. It is marked by beauty of expression and flow of intense emotion. The four representative poets of this era represent the best in Hindi Poetry. A unique feature of this period is the emotional (and sometimes active) attachment of poets with national freedom struggle, their effort to understand and imbibe the vast spirit of a magnificent ancient culture and their towering genius which grossly overshadowed all the literary 'talked abouts' of next seven decades.
Other important genres of Adhunik Sahitya (Modernism) are:
Prayogvad (Experimentalism) of Ajneya and the Tar Saptak poets, also known as Nayi Kavita (New Poetry) and Nayi Kahani (New Story) of
Nirmal VermaNirmal Verma was a Hindi writer, novelist, activist and translator. He is credited as being one of pioneers of ‘Nayi Kahani’ literary movement of Hindi literature, wherein his first collection of stories, ‘Parinde’ is considered its first signature.In his career spanning five decades and various...
and others; followed by
Pragativad (Progressivism) of
Gajanan Madhav MuktibodhGajanan Madhav Muktibodh was one of the most prominent Hindi poets, essayist, literary and political critic, and fiction writers of the 20th century...
and other authors.
Nakenwad
Among the numerous schools of poetry which sprang up in the fifties of this century was Nakenwad, a school deriving its nomenclature from the first letters of the names of its three pioneers - Pandit Nalin Vilochan Sharma, Kesari Kumar, and
Naresh MehtaNaresh Mehta is a Hindi writer. There are over 50 published works in his name, ranging from poetry to plays. He received several literary awards, most notably the Sahitya Akademi Award in Hindi in 1988 for his poetry collection Aranya and the Jnanpith Award in 1992.Among the numerous schools of...
all poets of note in their own right. Apart from being poets, Nalin Vilochan and Kesari Kumar were also brilliant critics, with a wide perspective on literary history. Their critical attitude is marked by a synthesis or coordination of various disciplines of human knowledge -
philosophyPhilosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
,
historyHistory is the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. History can also mean the period of time after writing was invented. Scholars who write about history are called historians...
,
artArt is the product or process of deliberately arranging items in a way that influences and affects one or more of the senses, emotions, and intellect....
and
cultureCulture is a term that has many different inter-related meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions...
, all pressed into the service of literary appraisal and analysis.
Hindi travel literature
Rahul SankrityayanMahapandit Rahul Sankrityayan , who is called the Father of Hindi Travel literature, was one of the most widely-traveled scholars of India, spending forty-five years of his life on travels away from his home. He became a buddhist monk and eventually took up Marxist Socialism...
, Bhadant Anand Kausalyayan, Sachchidananda Hirananda Vatsyayan 'Ajneya' and Baba Nagarjun were some of the great Indian writers who dedicated themselves entirely to the Hindi
Travel LiteratureTravel literature is travel writing of literary value. Travel literature typically records the experiences of an author touring a place for the pleasure of travel. An individual work is sometimes called a travelogue or itinerary. Travel literature may be cross-cultural or transnational in focus, or...
(Yatra Vritanta).
Rahul SankrityayanMahapandit Rahul Sankrityayan , who is called the Father of Hindi Travel literature, was one of the most widely-traveled scholars of India, spending forty-five years of his life on travels away from his home. He became a buddhist monk and eventually took up Marxist Socialism...
was one of the greatest traveled scholars of India, spending forty-five years of his life on travels away from his home. He is known as the ("Father of Hindi
Travel literatureTravel literature is travel writing of literary value. Travel literature typically records the experiences of an author touring a place for the pleasure of travel. An individual work is sometimes called a travelogue or itinerary. Travel literature may be cross-cultural or transnational in focus, or...
"). Baba Nagarjun was a major Hindi and Maithili poet who has also penned a number of novels, short stories, literary biographies and travelogues, and was known as ("Janakavi- the People's Poet").
Hindi playwriting
The pioneer of
Hindi theatreHindi theatre primarily refers to theatre performed in the Hindi language, including dialects such as Khari boli and Hindustani. Hindi theatre is produced mainly in North India, and some parts of West India and Central India, which include Mumbai and Bhopal...
as well as playwrighting, Bhartendu Harishchandra wrote Satya Harishchandra (1875), Bhar Durdasha (1876) and Andher Nagari (1878), in late 19th century,
Jaishankar PrasadJaishankar Prasad , one of the most famous figures in modern Hindi literature as well as Hindi theatre.- Biography :...
became the next big figure in Hindi playwriting with plays like Skanda Gupta (1928), Chandragupta (1931) and Dhruvswamini (1933).
As the Independence struggle was gathering steam playwrights broaching issues of nationalism and subversive ideas against the British, yet to dodge censorship they adapted themes from mythology, history and legend and used them as vehicle for political messages, a trend that continues to date, though now it was employed to bring out social, personal and psychological issues rather than clearly political, though street theatre broke this trend in coming decades in post-independence era, like IPTA-inspired, Naya Theatre of
Habib TanvirHabib Tanvir was one of the most popular Indian Urdu, Hindi playwrights, a theatre director, poet and actor. He is the writer of plays such as, Agra Bazar and Charandas Chor...
did in 1950s-90s,
Jana Natya ManchJana Natya Manch is a New Delhi-based amateur theatre company specializing in left-wing street theatre in Hindi. It was founded in 1973 by a group of Delhi's radical theatre amateurs, who sought to take theatre to the people...
of
Safdar HashmiSafdar Hashmi was a Communist playwright, actor, director, lyricist, and theorist, chiefly associated with Street theatre in India, and is still considered an important voice in political theatre in India....
did in 1970s-80s. Post-independence the emerging republic threw up new issues for playwrights to tackle and express, and Hindi playwriting showed greater brevity and symbolism, but it was not as prolific as in case with Hindi poetry or fiction. Yet we have playwrights like Jagdish Chandra Mathur (Konark) and Upendranath Ashk (Anjo Didi), who displayed a steadily evolving understanding of stagecraft. These were followed another generation of pioneers in Hindi playwrighting,
Mohan RakeshMohan Rakesh was one of the pioneers of the Nai Kahani literary movement of the Hindi literature in the 1950s. He wrote the first modern Hindi play, Ashadh Ka Ek Din , which won a competition organized by the Sangeet Natak Akademi...
, who started with
Ashadh Ka Ek DinAshadh Ka Ek Din is a debut Hindi play by Mohan Rakesh in 1958 and is considered the first Modern Hindi play. The play received a Sangeet Natak Akademi Award for best play in 1959 and has been staged by several prominent directors to critical acclaim...
(1958), Adhe Adhure and Lehron Ke Rajhans,
Dharamvir BharatiDr. Dharamvir Bharati was a renowned Hindi poet, author, playwright and a social thinker of India. He was the Chief-Editor of the popular Hindi weekly magazine Dharmayug....
, who wrote
Andha Yug Andha Yug is 1954 verse play written in Hindi, by renowned novelist, poet, and playwright Dharamvir Bharati . It was the first important play of 20th century India...
, and other playwrights like
Surendra VermaSurendra Verma is a leading Hindi litterateur and playwright. He started out as a playwright, when his play Surya Ki Antim Kiran Se Surya Ki Pahli Kiran Tak , became quite well known, has been translated into six Indian languages. Has had a long association with the National School of Drama...
, and
Bhisham SahniBhisham Sahni भीष्म साहनी was a Hindi writer, playwright, and actor, most famous for his novel and television screenplay Tamas , a powerful and passionate account of the Partition of India...
.
Hindi essay-writing
Acharya Kuber Nath RaiAcharya Kuber Nath Rai was a writer and scholar of Hindi Literature and Sanskrit.-Early life:He was born in Matsa village, Ghazipur, Uttar Pradesh in a Brahmin of bhumihar Brahmin clan family...
is one of the writers who dedicated themselves entirely to the form of essay-writing. His collections of essays Gandha Madan, Priya neel-kanti, Ras Aakhetak, Vishad Yog, Nishad Bansuri, Parna mukut have enormously enriched the form of
essayAn essay is a piece of writing which is often written from an author's personal point of view. Essays can consist of a number of elements, including: literary criticism, political manifestos, learned arguments, observations of daily life, recollections, and reflections of the author. The definition...
. A scholar of Indian culture and
western literatureWestern literature refers to the literature written in the languages of Europe, including the ones belonging to the Indo-European language family as well as several geographically or historically related languages such as Basque, Hungarian, and so forth...
, he was proud of Indian heritage. His love for natural beauty and Indian
folk literatureOral tradition and oral lore is cultural material and traditions transmitted orally from one generation to another. The messages or testimony are verbally transmitted in speech or song and may take the form, for example, of folktales, sayings, ballads, songs, or chants...
s and preference for agricultural society over the age of machines, his romantic outlook, aesthetic sensibility, his keen eye on contemporary reality and classical style place him very high among contemporary essayists in
HindiStandard Hindi, or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi, also known as Manak Hindi , High Hindi, Nagari Hindi, and Literary Hindi, is a standardized and sanskritized register of the Hindustani language derived from the Khariboli dialect of Delhi...
.
Prominent Figures of Hindi literature
{{Main|List of Hindi authors}}
- Chand Bardai
Chand Bardai was the court poet of the Indian king Prithviraj III Chauhan, who ruled Ajmer and Delhi from 1165 to 1192. A native of Lahore, Chand Bardai composed the Prithviraj Raso, an epic poem in Hindi about the life of Prithviraj...
(1148–1191), author of Prithviraj RasoThe Prithviraj Raso or Prithvirajaraso is an epic poem composed by court poet, Chand Bardai, on the life of Prithviraj III, a Chauhan king who ruled Ajmer and Delhi between 1165 and 1192.Chand Bardai claimed to be contemporary of Prithviraj Chauhan.The historicity of Prithviraj Raso was proved...
- Sheikh Farid (c.1173-c.1266)
- Amir Khusro
Ab'ul Hasan Yamīn ud-Dīn Khusrow , better known as Amīr Khusrow Dehlawī , was an Indian musician, scholar and poet. He was an iconic figure in the cultural history of the Indian subcontinent...
(1253-1325 AD), author of pahelis and mukris in the "Hindavi" dialect.
- Vidyapati
Vidyapati Thakur , also known by the sobriquet Maithil Kavi Kokil was a Maithili poet and a Sanskrit writer. He was born in the village of Bishphi in Madhubani district of Bihar state, India. He was son of Ganapati...
(1352–1448), a prominent poet of Eastern dialects.
- Kabir
Kabīr was a mystic poet and saint of India, whose writings have greatly influenced the Bhakti movement...
(1398–1518), a major figure of the bhaktiIn Hinduism Bhakti is religious devotion in the form of active involvement of a devotee in worship of the divine.Within monotheistic Hinduism, it is the love felt by the worshipper towards the personal God, a concept expressed in Hindu theology as Svayam Bhagavan.Bhakti can be used of either...
(devotional) movement.
- Nanak (1469–1538) author of a section of the Adi Granth
- Surdas
Surdas, the 15th century sightless saint, poet and musician, is known for his devotional songs dedicated to Lord Krishna. Surdas is said to have written and composed a hundred thousand songs in his magnum opus the 'Sur Sagar' , out of which only about 8,000 are extant...
(1467–1583) author of Sahitya lahri, Sur Sarawali, 'Sur Sagar etc.
- Malik Muhammad Jayasi
Malik Muhammad Jayasi was an Indian poet who wrote in the Avadhi dialect of Hindi.He hailed from Jais, presently a city in the Rae Bareli district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh...
author of the PadmavatPadmavat or Padmawat is an epic poem written in 1540 by Malik Muhammad Jayasi in the Awadhi language. It is the first important work in Awadhi.- Theme :...
(1540) etc.
- Mirabai (1504–1560) author of Mira Padavali etc.
- Goswami Tulasidas (1532–1623) author of Ramacharitamanas
Shri Ramcharitmanas , also spelt Shri Ramcharitamanasa, is an epic poem in Awadhi, composed by the 16th-century Indian poet, Goswami Tulsidas...
Vinay Patrika
- Keshavdas
Keshavdas was a Sanskrit scholar and Hindi poet, best known for his Rasik Priya, a pioneering work of the riti kaal of Hindi literature.-Life:...
(1555–1617) author of Rasikpriya etc.
- Bihari (1595–1664) became famous by writing Satasai
The Satasai or Bihari Satsai is a famous work of the early 17th century by the Hindi poet Bihārī, in the Braj Bhasha dialect of Hindi spoken in the Braj region of northern India...
(Seven Hundred Verses).
- Guru Gobind Singh
Guru Gobind Singh is the tenth and last Sikh guru in a sacred lineage of ten Sikh gurus. Born in Patna, Bihar in India, he was also a warrior, poet and philosopher. He succeeded his father Guru Tegh Bahadur as the leader of Sikhs at a young age of nine...
(1669–1708) author of Bichitra Natak etc.
- Bharatendu Harishchandra
Bharatendu Harishchandra is known as the father of modern Hindi literature as well as Hindi theatre. He is considered one of the greatest Hindi writers of modern India. A recognized poet, he was also a trend setter in Hindi prose-writing...
(1850–1885), whose works are compiled in Bharatendu Granthavali
- Ganga Das
Ganga Das was a revered saint of udasi sect and known for piety and Hindi poetry. He was born on the day of Basant Panchami in year 1823 in village Rasulpur Bahlolpur of Ghaziabad district in the family of Hindu Jat of Munder Gotra....
(1823–1913) was a revered saint of udasi sect and known for piety and Hindi poetry, who composed about 50 kavya-granthas and thousands of padas, who is known as Bhismpita of the Hindi poetry.
- Munshi Premchand
Munshi Premchand , was a famous writer of modern Hindi-Urdu literature. He is generally recognized in India as the foremost Hindi-Urdu writer of the early twentieth century...
(1880–1936), considered one of the greatest Hindi novelists of all time
- Rahul Sankrityayan
Mahapandit Rahul Sankrityayan , who is called the Father of Hindi Travel literature, was one of the most widely-traveled scholars of India, spending forty-five years of his life on travels away from his home. He became a buddhist monk and eventually took up Marxist Socialism...
(1893–1963), widely traveled scholars of India
- Swami Sahajanand Saraswati
Swami Sahajanand Saraswati , born in a Jijhoutia Brahminfamily of Ghazipur of Uttar Pradesh state of India, was an ascetic of Dashnami Order of Adi Shankara Sampradaya as well as a nationalist and peasant leader of India...
(1889–1950), books on peasant movement and the nationalist struggle, autobiography(mera jeevan sangharsh) and many others.
- Jaishankar Prasad
Jaishankar Prasad , one of the most famous figures in modern Hindi literature as well as Hindi theatre.- Biography :...
(1889–1937), stalwart of the literary movement called ChhayavaadChhayavaad refers to the era of Neo-romanticism in Hindi literature particularly Hindi poetry, 1917–1938, and was marked by an upsurge of romantic and humanist content. Chhayavad was marked by a renewed sense of the self and personal expression, visible in the writings of time...
.
- Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala'
Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala' was one of the most famous figures of the modern Hindi literature. He was a poet, novelist, essayist and story-writer...
(1899–1961)
- Hazariprasad Dwivedi (1907–1979)
- Mahadevi Varma
Mahadevi Varma best known as an outstanding Hindi poet, was a freedom fighter, woman's activist and educationist from India. She is widely regarded as the "modern Meera". She was a major poet of the Chhayavaad generation, a period of romanticism in Modern Hindi poetry ranging from 1914-1938...
, one of the "four pillars" of the Chhayavada movement
- Rani movement of the 1950s
- Dharmavir Bharati (1926–1997), a renowned Hindi writer and editor
- Raghuvir Sahay
Raghuvir Sahay was a versatile Hindi poet, short-story writer, essayist, literary critic, translator, and journalist. He remained the chief-editor of noted, political-social, Hindi weekly, Dinmaan, 1969–82....
(1929–1990) was a versatile Hindi poet, translator, short-story writer and journalist.
- Rajkamal Chaudhary
Rajkamal Chaudhary , was an Indian poet, short story writer, novelist, critic and thinker in Hindi, Maithili and Bangla languages. He was known as "a bold leader of new poetry" and writer who "stands out differently" from most other experimentalists.-Biography:Raj Kamal was born at Mahishi village...
(1929–1967) poet, short story writer, novelist, critic
- Nirmal Verma
Nirmal Verma was a Hindi writer, novelist, activist and translator. He is credited as being one of pioneers of ‘Nayi Kahani’ literary movement of Hindi literature, wherein his first collection of stories, ‘Parinde’ is considered its first signature.In his career spanning five decades and various...
(1929–2005), one of the founders of the Nai Kahani (new short story) school
- Bhupendra nath Kaushik"fikr" (1925–2007), Urdu, Hindi writer "Koltar main aks"
- Narendra Kohli
Narendra Kohli ' is a Hindi-language author. He is credited with reinventing the ancient form of epic writing in modern prose. He is also regarded as a trend-setter in the sense that he pioneered the creation of literary works based on the "Puranas"...
(b. 1940) known for his plays, satires, short stories and novels
- Harishankar Parsai
Harishankar Parsai was a Hindi writer. He was a noted satirist and humorist of modern Hindi literature and is known for his simple and direct style....
, known for satirical works
- Jainendra: An extremely influential figure in 20th century Hindi literature.
- Babu Gulabrai
Babu Gulabrai was one of the greatest literary figures of modern Hindi literature.-Biography:...
(1888–1963): an eminent critic, philosopher and essay writer, known for his biography Meri Asafaltaein
- Guru Bhakt Singh 'Bhakt'
Guru Bhakt Singh 'Bhakt was a renowned poet and dramatist. He is known as Wordsworth of India.-Life:...
(1893–1983)
- Yashpal
Not to be confused with Yash Pal Yashpal was a Hindi author renowned for झूटा सच Jhutha Sach , which is regarded as one of the best Hindi novels ever written...
(1903–1976), author of Jhutha Sach
- Devaki Nandan Khatri
Devaki Nandan Khatri was an Indian writer, who belonged to the first generation of popular novelists in the modern Hindi language. Also known as Babu Devakinandan Khatri, he was the first author of mystery novels in Hindi. Chandrakanta is the most popular of his works.- Biography :Khatri was born...
(1861–1913) author of ChandrakantaChandrakanta is a popular Hindi novel by Devaki Nandan Khatri. It is considered to be the first work of prose in the modern Hindi language, and may have significantly contributed to the language's popularity...
etc.
- Maithili Sharan Gupt
Maithilisharan Gupt was one of the most important modern Hindi poets. He is considered among the pioneers of Khari Boli poetry and wrote in Khari Boli at a time when most Hindi poets favoured the use of Brajbhasha.- Early life :Born Chirgaon, Jhansi in a Gahoi family...
(1886–1964), pioneer of Khadiboli poetry
- Vibhuti Narain Rai
Vibhuti Narain Rai did M.A. in English Literature from Allahabad University in the year 1971. He joined Indian Police Service in 1975 and was allotted Uttar Pradesh cadre. He served many sensitive districts as Superintendent of Police....
(b. 1951), a renowned modern Hindi writer and Police Superintendent.
- Kumar Vishwas
Kumar Vishwas is a renowned Hindi Poet and a professor of Hindi Literature from Pilkhuwa, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh.-Early life and education:...
(b. 1974), a renowned modern Hindi poet
- Viveki Rai
Viveki Rai is a famous literary figure of Hindi & Bhojpuri literature. He belongs to Sonwani village in Ghazipur. He got many awards from U P Govt. He has written more than 50 books. Sonamati is a popular novel of Mr.Rai...
(b. 1927)
- Hrishikesh Sulabh
Hrishikesh Sulabh is a Hindi writer, best known for short stories and writing plays in Bideshiya shaili. He works with All India Radio.-Recent:...
(b. 1955) short story writer, playwright, drama critic. Pioneer of modern Hindi theatre in Bihar.
- Paigham Afaqui
Paig̲h̲ām Āfāqī , also written Paigham Afaqi pr Paigham Afaqui is the literary name of Akhtar Ali Farooquee , an Indian writer, known particular for his Urdu novels and short stories....
(b.1956) Novelist,short-story-writer and poet and author of novel MakaanMakaan is a Urdu novel by Paigham Afaqui that was first published in 1989 and first published in English in 2002.It is now well recognized as an important Indian novel and a step forward in Indian fiction and a significant part of Indian literature....
.
- Ram Ratan Bhatnagar
Dr. Ram Ratan Bhatnagar was a Hindi scholar, professor in the Hindi Department at the University of Sagar, writer and critic of Hindi literature and poetry.-Early days:...
(b.1914) writer and critic of Hindi literature and poetry.
- Phanishwar Nath 'Renu'
Phanishwar Nath 'Renu was one of the most successful and influential writers of modern Hindi literature in the post-Premchand era...
(b.1921) freedom fighter, socialist, his best work considered to be Maila Anchal
Eminent Hindi Journalists
Jugal Kishore Shukla
1st Hindi Journalist. Former Presiding Reader of the Calcutta Court.
Started Oodunt Martand on 26 May 1826 as a weekly magazine for the Hindustanis of Calcutta.
Oodunt Martand known for its fine language and could compete with English and Bengali papers in covering news. However, due to financial reasons, it closed down on 11 December 1827. 23 years later, Shukla started Samayadant Martand, another weekly in Calcutta but due to financial problems this too closed down.
Durgaprasad Mishra
Born in Kashmir, he came to Calcutta and started Bharat Mitra in 1878.
In 1879, he began another weekly magazine- Saar Sudhanidhi but it closed down in that same year. On 17 August 1880, he started a 3rd weekly- Ucchit Vakta- meaning Right or Best Time. Ucchit Vakta focused on spreading the truth (about the British Raj) and fighting for justice. It became very popular for many years.
Mishra underwent a lot of difficulties trying to bring out a critical publication at the time of the British Raj. At times he was the editor, writer and also sold the paper himself.
He was an inspiration for many journalists, particularly Bal Mukund Gupta.
Dharmveer Bharati
Born on 25 December 1926, he graduated in BA (first class) in 1945 and in 1947 completed his MA in Hindi literature (first class) and finally did his PhD from Allahabad University. For some time he was principal of Allahabad University.
He began his journalist career in Abhyudaya, a journal by Padmakant Malviya. He then joined Sangam, edited by Ilachand Joshi and then became editor of Dharmayug. Thanks to Bharati, this journal became very popular.
During the 1971 war, Bharati reported from the frontlines of the battle. He covered all the horrors of the war. His series of reports, the finest in Hindi war journalism, were published under the title of 'Yudh Yatra'. As an honest and dedicated reporter, Bharati was unrivaled. After the war, he became editor of 2 more journals- Aalochana and Nikarshak.
Bharati was also famous as a short story writer, poet, essayist and novelist. The best known of his works are 'Band Galli ka Aakhiri Makaan', 'Andha Yug', 'Kunpriya'.
Bharatendu Harishchandra
Began a journalists career at the age of 17. Published Kavi Vachan Sudha (1867) a monthly dedicated to ancient and medieval poetry. Published Harishchandra Magazine in 1873- a general interest magazine
Published Bala Bodhini from 1874- for women and young girls.
KVS was acknowledged to be the finest literary journal in any Indian language of that time, and was on par with the best of English journals. Bharatendu kept the journal up until his death 1885.
Because of his extraordinary achievements, he is considered the most prolific Hindi journalist.
Madan Mohan Malviya
He was born in 1861 in Allahabad to a Brahmin family. From 1885 to 1887 was the editor of Indian Opinion. He was a strong supporter of the Congress. He helped launch the newspaper Dainik Hindustan and was its editor from 1887 to 1889. He was a close friend of many eminent Hindi writers like Gopalram Gehmari, Amrutlal Chakravarty and Pandit Pratap Narayan Mishra.
Along with Bal Mukund Gupta, he launched an Urdu journal 'Kohinoor' from Lahore. In those days, Gupta was not a facile Hindi scholar, but under Malviya's training, Gupta became editor of Bharat Mitra.
In 1908, Malviya founded a new revolutionary journal Abhyudaya from Prayag. The renowned writer Purushottamdas Tando was a frequent contributor to it.
After Abhyudaya, Malviya founded a monthly magazine 'Maryada', in 1909 he founded a daily 'Leader' and later on another daily- 'Bharat'.
Malviya was a great patriot and his love for his country was seen in all of his writings.
He also contributed to Aaj, and helped to found the Hindustan Times in 1933, along with its Hindi counterpart Hindustan.
Babu Gulabrai (January 17, 1888 - April 13, 1963) (pen name: Gulabrai MA) was one of the greatest literary figures of modern Hindi literature.
See also
{{Portal|Literature}}
- Mahatma Gandhi Antarrashtriya Hindi Vishwavidyalaya
The Mahatma Gandhi Antarrashtriya Hindi Vishwavidyalaya is an Indian central university established for the promotion and development of Hindi language and literature, through teaching and research. It is located in the city of Wardha in Maharashtra. The university came into existence on January 8,...
, an Indian central university with a literary focus
Further reading
- Hindi Literature, by Ram Awadh Dwivedi. Published by Hindi Pracharak Pustakalaya, 1953.
- A History of Hindi literature, by K. B. Jindal. Published by Kitab Mahal, 1955.
- Hindi Literature from Its Beginnings to the Nineteenth Century, by Ronald Stuart McGregor. Published by Harrassowitz, 1984. ISBN 3-447-02413-5.
- Hindi Literature of the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries, by Ronald Stuart McGregor. Published by Harrassowitz, 1974. ISBN 3-447-01607-8.
- A New Voice for New Times: The Development of Modern Hindi Literature, by Ronald Stuart McGregor. Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University, 1981. ISBN 0-909879-13-3.
- An Encyclopaedia of World Hindi Literature, by Ganga Ram Garg. Published by Concept Pub. Co., 1986.
External links
{{Hindi topics}}
{{Urdu topics}}
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