The
Herring Gull,
Larus argentatus, is a large
gullGulls are birds in the family Laridae. They are most closely related to the terns and only distantly related to auks, skimmers, and more distantly to the waders...
(up to 26 inches or 66 cm long), and is the most abundant and best known of all gulls along the shores of Asia, western Europe, and North America. It breeds across
North AmericaNorth America is the northern continent of the Americas, situated in the Earth's northern hemisphere and in the western hemisphere. It is bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the North Atlantic Ocean, on the southeast by the Caribbean Sea, and on the west by the North Pacific...
,
EuropeEurope is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus Mountains , and the Black Sea to the southeast...
and
AsiaAsia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.6% of the earth's total surface area and with approximately 4 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population.Asia is traditionally defined as part of the...
. Some Herring Gulls, especially those resident in colder areas,
migrateBird migration is the regular seasonal journey undertaken by many species of birds. Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability, habitat or weather. These however are usually irregular or in only one direction and are termed variously as nomadism, invasions,...
further south in winter, but many are permanent residents, e.g. those on the lower
Great LakesThe Great Lakes are a collection of freshwater lakes located in eastern North America, on the Canada – United States border. Consisting of Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, they form the largest group of freshwater lakes on Earth. They are sometimes referred to as the "Third...
, on the east coast of North America or at the
North SeaThe North Sea is a marginal, epeiric sea on the European continental shelf. The Dover Strait and the English Channel in the south and the Norwegian Sea in the north connect it to the Atlantic Ocean. It is more than long and wide, with an area of around...
shores. Herring Gulls are also abundant around inland garbage dumps, and some have even adapted to life in inland cities.
Taxonomy
The taxonomy of the Herring Gull /
Lesser Black-backed GullThe Lesser Black-backed Gull is a large gull which breeds on the Atlantic coasts of Europe. It is migratory, wintering from the British Isles south to West Africa...
complex is very complicated, different authorities recognising between two and eight species.
This group has a
ring distributionIn biology, a ring species is a connected series of neighboring populations that can interbreed with relatively closely related populations, but for which there exist at least two "end" populations in the series that are too distantly related to interbreed. Often such...
around the northern hemisphere. Differences between adjacent forms in this ring are fairly small, but by the time the circuit is completed, the end members, Herring Gull and Lesser Black-backed Gull, are clearly different species.
The
Association of European Rarities CommitteesThe Association of European Rarities Committees is a co-ordinating and liaison body for the bird rarities committees of Europe and other nearby countries.It was created in 1993 at a meeting of European rarities committees on the German island of Heligoland....
recognises six species:
- European Herring Gull, Larus argentatus
- American Herring Gull
The American Herring Gull, Larus smithsonianus, is a large gull which breeds in North America. It is often treated as a subspecies of the European Herring Gull but is now regarded as a separate species by some authorities....
, Larus smithsonianus
- Caspian Gull
Caspian Gull is a name applied to the gull taxon Larus cachinnans, a member of the Herring Gull/Lesser Black-backed Gull complex.-Description:...
, Larus cachinnans
- Yellow-legged Gull
The Yellow-legged Gull is a large gull of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. It is sometimes considered to be part of the same species as the Caspian Gull and the combined species is then called Larus cachinnans....
, Larus michahellis
- East Siberian Gull
The Vega Gull or East Siberian Gull, Larus vegae, is a large gull of the Herring Gull/Lesser Black-backed Gull complex which breeds in North-east Asia. Its classification is still controversial and uncertain. It is variously treated as a separate species, as a subspecies of American Herring Gull...
, Larus vegae
- Armenian Gull
The Armenian Gull is a large gull found in the Caucasus and Middle East. It was formerly classified as a subspecies of the Herring Gull but is now generally considered to be a separate species....
, Larus armenicus
Subspecies
- L. a. argentatus, the nominate form, breeds in Scandinavia and north-west Russia. Northern and eastern populations migrate south-west in winter. It is a large, bulky gull with extensive white in the wingtips.
- L. a. argenteus breeds in Western Europe in Iceland, the Faroes, Britain, Ireland, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany. Many birds are resident while others make short-distance migratory journeys. It is smaller than L. a. argentatus with more black and less white in the wingtips and paler upperparts.
The two following
taxa|thumb|270px|[[African elephants]] form a widely-accepted taxon, the [[genus]] LoxodontaA taxon is a group of organisms, which a taxonomist adjudges to be a unit. Usually a taxon is given a name and a rank, although neither is a requirement. Defining what belongs or does not belong to such a...
are classified as
subspeciesSubspecies in biological classification, is 1) a taxonomic rank subordinate to species, or 2) a taxonomic unit, a taxon in that rank...
of
Larus argentatus by some authorities such as the
American Ornithologists' UnionThe American Ornithologists' Union is an ornithological organization in the USA. Unlike the National Audubon Society, its members are primarily professional ornithologists rather than amateur birders...
and
Handbook of the Birds of the WorldThe Handbook of the Birds of the World is a multi-volume series produced by the Spanish publishing house Lynx Edicions. It is the first handbook to cover every living species of bird. The series is edited by Josep del Hoyo, Andrew Elliott, Jordi Sargatal and David A Christie.So far, 13 volumes...
. Others such as the
Association of European Rarities CommitteesThe Association of European Rarities Committees is a co-ordinating and liaison body for the bird rarities committees of Europe and other nearby countries.It was created in 1993 at a meeting of European rarities committees on the German island of Heligoland....
and
British Ornithologists' UnionThe British Ornithologists' Union aims to encourage the study of birds in Britain, Europe and elsewhere, in order to understand their biology and to aid their conservation....
now regard them as one or two separate species.
- L. (a.) smithsonianus, American Herring Gull
The American Herring Gull, Larus smithsonianus, is a large gull which breeds in North America. It is often treated as a subspecies of the European Herring Gull but is now regarded as a separate species by some authorities....
, breeds in Alaska, Canada and the north-east United States. Many birds migrate southwards in winter, reaching as far as Central America and the West Indies. Immature birds tend to be darker and more uniformly brown than European Herring Gulls and have a dark tail.
- L. (a.) vegae, Vega Gull, breeds in north-east Siberia. It winters in Japan, Korea, eastern China and Taiwan.
Several other gulls have been included in this species in the past but are now normally considered separate, e.g.
Yellow-legged GullThe Yellow-legged Gull is a large gull of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. It is sometimes considered to be part of the same species as the Caspian Gull and the combined species is then called Larus cachinnans....
(
L. michahellis),
Caspian GullCaspian Gull is a name applied to the gull taxon Larus cachinnans, a member of the Herring Gull/Lesser Black-backed Gull complex.-Description:...
(
L. cachinnans),
Armenian GullThe Armenian Gull is a large gull found in the Caucasus and Middle East. It was formerly classified as a subspecies of the Herring Gull but is now generally considered to be a separate species....
(
L. armenicus) and
Heuglin's GullHeuglin's Gull or Siberian Gull, Larus heuglini, is a seabird in the genus Larus. It is closely related to the Lesser Black-backed Gull, Larus fuscus, and is often classified as a subspecies of it...
(
L. heuglini).
Description
The male Herring Gull is 60-66 cm (24-26 in) long and weighs 1050-1250 grams (2.3-2.8 lb) while the female is 55-62 cm (22-24.5 in) and weighs 800-980 grams (1.8-2.2 lb). The wingspan is 137-150 cm (54-59 in). Adults in breeding plumage have a grey back and upperwings and white head and underparts. The wingtips are black with white spots known as "mirrors" . The bill is yellow with a red spot and there is a ring of bare yellow skin around the pale eye. The legs are normally pink at all ages but can be yellowish, particularly in the Baltic population which was formerly regarded as a separate subspecies "
L. a. omissus". Non-breeding adults have brown streaks on the head and neck. Male and female plumage is identical at all stages of development, however adult males are often larger.
JuvenileA juvenile is an individual organism that has not yet reached its adult form, sexual maturity or size. Juveniles sometimes look very different from the adult form, particularly in terms of their colour....
and first-winter birds are mainly brown with darker streaks and have a dark bill and eyes. Second-winter birds have a whiter head and underparts with less streaking and the back is grey. Third-winter individuals are similar to adults but retain some of the features of immature birds such as brown feathers in the wings and dark markings on the bill. The Herring Gull attains adult plumage and reaches
sexual maturitySexual maturity is the age or stage when an organism can reproduce. It is sometimes considered synonymous with adulthood, though the two are distinct...
at an average age of four years.
Similar species
Adult Herring Gulls are similar to
Ring-billed GullThe Ring-billed Gull is a medium-sized gull.Adults are length and with a wingspan. They have a white head, neck and underparts and a relatively short, yellow bill with a dark ring. The back and wings are silver grey and they have yellow legs. Their eyes are yellow and their outer rims are red...
s but are much larger, have pinkish legs, and a much thicker yellow bill with more pronounced gonys. First-winter Herring Gulls are much browner, but second and third-winter birds can be confusing since soft part colors are variable and third-year Herring Gull often show a ring around the bill. Such birds are most easily distinguished by the larger size and larger bill of Herring Gull.
Voice
The loud laughing call is well-known in the northern hemisphere. The Herring Gull also has a yelping alarm call and a low barking anxiety call.
Herring Gull chicks and fledglings emit a distinctive, repetitive high-pitched 'peep', accompanied by a head-flicking gesture when begging for food from, or calling to their parents. It should also be noted that adult gulls in urban areas will also exhibit this behaviour when fed by humans.
Behaviour
Herring Gull flocks have a loose
pecking orderPecking order or just peck order is a hierarchical system of social organization in animals. It was first described from the behaviour of poultry by Thorleif Schjelderup-Ebbe in 1921 under the German terms Hackordnung or Hackliste and introduced into English in 1925. The original usage of "peck...
, based on size, aggressiveness and physical strength. Adult males are usually dominant over females and juveniles in feeding and boundary disputes, whilst adult females are typically dominant when selecting nest sites. Communication between these birds is complex and highly-developed - employing both calls and body language. Two identical vocalizations can have very different (sometimes opposite) meanings, for example - depending on the positionings of the head, body, wings and tail relative to each other and the ground in the calling gull.
Unlike many flocking birds, Herring Gulls do not engage in
social groomingIn social animals such as humans social grooming or allogrooming is an activity in which individuals in a group clean or maintain each other's body or appearance. It is a major social activity, and a means by which animals who live in proximity can bond and reinforce social structures, family...
and keep physical contact between individuals to a minimum. Outside of the male/female and parent/chick relationship, each Herring Gull attempts to maintain a respectful 'safe distance' from others of its kind. Any breach of this results in
fightingCombat, or fighting, is purposeful violent conflict intended to establish dominance over the opposition.The term "combat" typically refers to armed conflict between military forces in warfare, whereas the more general term "fighting" can refer to any violent conflict...
, though severe injuries are seldom inflicted.
Herring Gulls are known to be capable of seeing
ultravioletUltraviolet light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength shorter than that of visible light, but longer than x-rays, in the range 10 nm to 400 nm, and energies from 3 eV to 124 eV...
light.
Parasites of Herring gulls include the fluke
Microphallus piriformesMicrophallus piriformes is a parasitic trematode . It belongs to the Plagiorchiata, a large suborder of the digenean fluke order Plagiorchiida. M...
.
Diet
These are omnivores and opportunists like most
Larus gulls, and will scavenge from garbage dumps, landfill sites, and sewage outflows, with
refuseWaste is unwanted or unusable material.In living organisms, waste is the unwanted substances or toxins that are expelled from them. More commonly, waste refers to the materials that are disposed of in a system of waste management.Waste is directly linked to human development, both technologically...
comprising up to half of the bird's diet. It also steals the eggs and young of other gulls, as well as seeking suitable small prey in fields on the coast or in urban areas, or robbing
ploverPlovers are a widely distributed group of wading birds belonging to the subfamily Charadriinae. They are known to dive in lakes looking for fish. There are about 40 species in the subfamily, most of them called "plover" or "dotterel"...
s or
lapwingVanellinae are any of various crested plovers, family Charadriidae, noted for its slow, irregular wing beat in flight and a shrill, wailing cry. Its length is 10-16 inches. They are a subfamily of medium-sized wading birds which also includes the plovers and dotterels. The Vanellinae are...
s of their catches. Despite their name, they have no special preference for
herringHerring are relatively small oily fish of the genus Clupea found in the shallow, temperate waters of the North Pacific and the North Atlantic oceans, including the Baltic Sea. Two species of Clupea are currently recognized, the Atlantic herring and the Pacific herring , each of which may be...
s. In fact, examinations have shown that
echinodermEchinoderm, there are seven main classes of Echinoderms which are brittle stars, basket stars, sea urchins, sand dollars, sea lilies, feather stars, and sea cucumbers...
s and
crustaceanCrustaceans are a very large group of arthropods, comprising almost 52,000 described species , and are usually treated as a subphylum . They include various familiar animals, such as crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill and barnacles...
s comprised a greater portion of these gulls' stomach contents than fish, although fish is the principle element of regurgitations for nestlings. Herring gulls can frequently be seen to drop shelled prey from a height in order to break the shell. In addition, the Herring Gull has been observed using pieces of bread as
baitFishing bait is any substance used to attract and catch fish, e.g. on the end of a fishing hook.-History:Traditionally, nightcrawlers, insects, and smaller fish have been used for this purpose...
with which to catch
goldfishGoldfish are small ornamental freshwater fish that are commonly kept as pets. Goldfish were one of the earliest breed of fish to be domesticated and are still one of the most commonly kept fish in aquariums and outdoor water gardens.Goldfish were originally domesticated from the Prussian carp ,...
. Vegetable matter such as roots,
tuberTubers are various types of modified plant structures that are enlarged to store nutrients. They are used by plants to overwinter and regrow the next year and as a means of asexual reproduction. Two different groups of tubers are: stem tubers, and root tubers.- Stem tubers :A stem tuber forms from...
s, seeds, grains, nuts and fruit is also taken to an extent.
Whilst the Herring Gull is fully capable (unlike humans) of consuming seawater, utilizing specialized glands located above the eyes to remove excess salt from the body, it will drink fresh water in preference, if available.
Courtship and reproduction
During courtship, the hen will approach the cock on his own territory with a hunched, submissive posture whilst making begging calls (similar to those emitted by young gulls). If the cock chooses not to attack her and drive her away, he will respond by assuming an upright posture and making a mewing call. This is followed by a period of synchronised head-tossing movements, after which the cock will then
regurgitateRegurgitation is the controlled flow of stomach contents back into the esophagus and mouth.Regurgitation is used by a number of species to feed their young...
some food for his prospective mate. If this is accepted,
copulationSexual intercourse, also known as copulation or coitus, commonly refers to the act in which the male reproductive organ enters the female reproductive tract. The two entities may be of opposite sexes or not, or they may be hermaphroditic, as is the case with snails...
will follow. A nesting site will then be chosen by both birds.
Two to four eggs, usually three, are laid on the ground or cliff ledges in colonies, and are defended vigorously by this large gull. The eggs are a dark blotched, olive color. They are
incubatedIncubation is the process by which birds hatch their eggs, and to the development of the embryo within the egg. The most vital factor of incubation is the constant temperature required for its development over a specific period. Especially in domestic fowl, the act of sitting on eggs to incubate...
for 28–30 days. Breeding colonies are predated by
great black-backed gullThe Great Black-backed Gull, Larus marinus, is a very large gull which breeds on the European and North American coasts and islands of the North Atlantic...
s,
harrierA harrier is any of the several species of diurnal hawks forming the Circinae sub-family of the Accipitridae family of birds of prey. Harriers characteristically hunt by flying low over open ground, feeding on small mammals, reptiles or birds....
s, corvids,
heronThe herons are wading birds in the Ardeidae family. There are 64 recognised species in this family. Some are called egrets or bitterns instead of herons....
s and
raccoonProcyon is a genus of nocturnal mammals, comprising three species commonly known as raccoons, in the family Procyonidae. The most widespread species, the Common Raccoon , is often known simply as "the" raccoon, as the two other raccoon species in the genus are native only to the tropics and are...
s.
Juveniles use their beaks to "knock" on the red spot on the beaks of adults to indicate hunger. Parents typically disgorge food for their offspring when they are "knocked". The young birds are able to fly 35–40 days after hatching and fledge at six weeks of age. Chicks are generally fed by their parents until they are 11–12 weeks old but the feeding may continue up to six months of age, if the young gull continues to beg. The male feeds the chick more often than the female before fledging, the female more often post-fledging.
Like most gulls, Herring Gulls are long lived, with a maximum age of 49 years recorded. Raptors (especially
owlThe Owls are the order Strigiformes, comprising 200 birds of prey, species. Most are solitary, and nocturnal, with some exceptions . Owls hunt mostly small mammals, insects, and other birds, though a few species specialize in hunting fish. They are found in all regions of the Earth except...
s,
peregrine falconThe Peregrine Falcon , also known simply as the Peregrine, and historically as the "Duck Hawk" in North America, is a cosmopolitan bird of prey in the family Falconidae. It is a large, crow-sized falcon, with a blue-gray back, barred white underparts, and a black head and "moustache"...
s and
gyrfalconThe gyrfalcon or Falco rusticolus, also spelled gerfalcon, is the largest of all falcon species. The Gyrfalcon breeds on Arctic coasts and islands of North America, Europe and Asia...
s) and seals (especially
grey sealThe Grey Seal is found on both shores of the North Atlantic Ocean. It is a large seal of the family Phocidae or "true seals". It is the only species classified in the genus Halichoerus...
s) occasionally prey on the non-nesting adults.
Interactions with humans
The Herring Gull is an increasingly common roof-nesting bird in urban areas of the UK. The
Clean Air Act 1956The Clean Air Act 1956 was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed in response to London's Great Smog of 1952. It was in effect between 1955 and 1964, and sponsored by the Ministry of Housing and Local Government in England and the Department of Health for Scotland.The Act introduced...
forbade the burning of refuse at landfill sites, providing the Herring Gull with a regular and plentiful source of food. As a direct result of this, Herring Gull populations in Britain sky-rocketed. Faced with a lack of space at their traditional colonies, the gulls ventured inland in search of new breeding grounds. Dwindling fish stocks in the seas around Britain may also have been a significant factor in the gulls' move inland.
The gulls found the year-round, 24/7 (due to the presence of street lighting) food supply in the streets and gardens of Britain (e.g. discarded fast food, rubbish contained in easy-to-tear plastic
bin bagA bin bag, garbage bag, trash bag, refuse sack, can liner , swag sack or bin liner is a disposable bag used to contain rubbish. Such bags are useful to line the insides of waste containers to prevent the insides of the receptacle from becoming coated in waste material...
s, food intentionally left out for other birds or the gulls themselves), the relative lack of predators and readily-available, convenient, warm and undisturbed rooftop nesting space in towns and cities to their liking and swiftly became established. Particularly large urban gull colonies (composed primarily of Herring Gulls and
Lesser Black-backed GullThe Lesser Black-backed Gull is a large gull which breeds on the Atlantic coasts of Europe. It is migratory, wintering from the British Isles south to West Africa...
s) are now present in
BristolBristol is a city, unitary authority area and ceremonial county in South West England, west of London, and east of Cardiff.With an estimated population of 416,400 for the unitary authority in mid-2007, and a surrounding urban area with an estimated 561,500 residents, it is England's sixth, and...
,
GloucesterGloucester is a city, district and county town of Gloucestershire in the South West region of England. Gloucester lies close to the Welsh border, and on the River Severn, approximately north-east of Bristol, and south-southwest of Birmingham....
and
AberdeenAberdeen is Scotland's third most populous city and one of Scotland's 32 local government council areas. It has an official population estimate of .Nicknames include the Granite City, the Grey City and the Silver City with the Golden Sands...
.
The survival rate for urban gulls is much higher than their counterparts in coastal areas, with an annual adult mortality rate of less than 5%. It is also common for each Herring Gull pair to successfully rear three chicks per year. This, when combined with the long-lived nature of Herring Gulls has resulted in a massive increase in numbers over a relatively short period of time and has brought the species into conflict with humans.
Once familiar with Man, urban Herring Gulls show little hesitation in swooping down to steal food from the hands of humans. During the breeding season, the gulls will also aggressively 'dive bomb' and attempt to strike with claws and wings (sometimes spraying faeces or vomit at the same time) at humans which they perceive to be a threat to their eggs and chicks - often innocent passers-by or residents of the buildings on which they have constructed their nests. Large amounts of gull excrement deposited on property and the noise from courting pairs and begging chicks in the summer months is also considered to be a nuisance by humans living alongside the Herring Gull.
Non-lethal attempts to deter the gulls from nesting in urban areas have been largely unsuccessful. The Herring Gull is intelligent and will completely ignore most '
bird scaringA bird scarer is any one of a number devices designed to scare birds, usually employed by farmers to dissuade birds from eating recently planted arable crops....
' technology after determining that it poses no threat. Rooftop spikes, tensioned wires and similar are also generally ineffective against this species. If nests are removed and eggs are taken, broken, or oiled, the gulls will simply rebuild and/or re-lay, or choose another nest site in the same area and start over.
Attempts to scare the gulls away using
raptorBirds of prey are birds that hunt for food primarily on the wing, using their keen senses, especially vision. They are defined as any bird that kills its prey with its talons. Their talons and beaks tend to be relatively large, powerful and adapted for tearing and/or piercing flesh. In most cases,...
s are similarly ineffective. Although they are intimidated by birds of prey, Herring Gulls, in addition to being social birds with strength in numbers, are large, powerful and aggressive as individuals and are more than capable of fighting back against the potential predator, particularly if they consider their chicks to be at risk. Herring Gulls are also naturally accustomed to predators (such as
SkuaA skua is a seabird of the family Stercorariidae. The three smaller skuas are called jaegers in North America.The name skua comes from Faroese skúgvur , but this word only applies to the species Stercorarius skua, and the island of Skúvoy is renowned for its colony of that bird. The generic...
s and
Great Black-backed GullThe Great Black-backed Gull, Larus marinus, is a very large gull which breeds on the European and North American coasts and islands of the North Atlantic...
s) living in the vicinity of their nest sites in the 'wild' and are not particularly discouraged from breeding by their presence.
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