Herculaneum papyri
Encyclopedia
The Herculaneum papyri are more than 1,800 papyri
found in Herculaneum
in the 18th century, carbonized by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius
in AD 79. After various methods of manipulation, a method was found to unroll and to read them.
The papyri, containing a number of Greek philosophical texts
, come from a single personal library
, that of Philodemus
, the Epicurean
. Philodemus is identified as the author of 44 rolls.
, by workmen of the Bourbon royal family
. Many of the rolls were destroyed by the workmen, others were destroyed when extracted from the volcanic tuff
. It is uncertain how many papyri were originally found. The official list amounts to 1,814 rolls and fragments, of which 1,756 had been discovered by 1855. According to David Diringer
more than 340 are almost complete, about 970 are partly decayed and partly decipherable, and more than 500 are merely charred fragments.
Attempts at unrolling were made by H. Davy
in 1818, and by F. C. Sickler in 1817–1819. From 1802 to 1806 the Rev. John Hayter unrolled and partly deciphered some 200 papyri.
In the middle of the 20th century only 585 rolls or fragments had been completely unrolled, and 209 unrolled in part. Of the unrolled papyri, about 200 had been deciphered and published, and about 150 deciphered only.
The bulk of the preserved manuscripts are housed in the Naples National Archaeological Museum
. In 1806 six rolls were presented to Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1810 eighteen unrolled papyri were given to George IV
, four of which he presented to the Bodleian Library
; the rest are now mainly in the British Library
.
In 1969 the International Center for the Study of the Herculaneum Papyri (Centro Internazionale per lo Studio dei Papiri Ercolanesi – CISPE) was founded on the initiative of Marcello Gigante. The center was founded for two purposes: working toward the resumption of the excavation of the Villa of the Papyri and promoting the renewal of studies of the texts of Herculaneum.
Since 1999 the papyri have been digitized by applying multi-spectral imaging
(MSI) techniques and by the use of X-ray
s. International experts and prominent scholars participated in the project. On 4 June 2011 it was announced that the task of digitizing 1,600 Herculaneum papyri had been completed.
and Latin
texts from the Ancient era, would never have survived the Mediterranean climate
and would have crumbled or been lost.
These papyri, containing a large number of Greek philosophical texts
, come from a single personal library
, that of Philodemus
, the Epicurean
. Philodemus is identified as the author of 44 rolls. Large parts of Books XIV, XV, XXV, and XXVIII of the magnum opus of Epicurus
, On Nature
and works by early followers of Epicurus are also represented among the papyri.
Papyrus
Papyrus is a thick paper-like material produced from the pith of the papyrus plant, Cyperus papyrus, a wetland sedge that was once abundant in the Nile Delta of Egypt....
found in Herculaneum
Herculaneum
Herculaneum was an ancient Roman town destroyed by volcanic pyroclastic flows in AD 79, located in the territory of the current commune of Ercolano, in the Italian region of Campania in the shadow of Mt...
in the 18th century, carbonized by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius
Mount Vesuvius
Mount Vesuvius is a stratovolcano in the Gulf of Naples, Italy, about east of Naples and a short distance from the shore. It is the only volcano on the European mainland to have erupted within the last hundred years, although it is not currently erupting...
in AD 79. After various methods of manipulation, a method was found to unroll and to read them.
The papyri, containing a number of Greek philosophical texts
Greek philosophy
Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BCE and continued through the Hellenistic period, at which point Ancient Greece was incorporated in the Roman Empire...
, come from a single personal library
Library
In a traditional sense, a library is a large collection of books, and can refer to the place in which the collection is housed. Today, the term can refer to any collection, including digital sources, resources, and services...
, that of Philodemus
Philodemus
Philodemus of Gadara was an Epicurean philosopher and poet. He studied under Zeno of Sidon in Athens, before moving to Rome, and then to Herculaneum. He was once known chiefly for his poetry preserved in the Greek anthology, but since the 18th century, many writings of his have been discovered...
, the Epicurean
Epicureanism
Epicureanism is a system of philosophy based upon the teachings of Epicurus, founded around 307 BC. Epicurus was an atomic materialist, following in the steps of Democritus. His materialism led him to a general attack on superstition and divine intervention. Following Aristippus—about whom...
. Philodemus is identified as the author of 44 rolls.
Discovery and unrolling
Between 1752 and 1754 numerous papyrus rolls were recovered in the Villa of the PapyriVilla of the Papyri
The Villa of the Papyri is a private house in the ancient Roman city of Herculaneum . Situated north-west of the township, the residence sits halfway up the slope of the volcano Vesuvius without other buildings to obstruct the view. The villa suburbana was owned by Julius Caesar's father-in-law,...
, by workmen of the Bourbon royal family
House of Bourbon
The House of Bourbon is a European royal house, a branch of the Capetian dynasty . Bourbon kings first ruled Navarre and France in the 16th century. By the 18th century, members of the Bourbon dynasty also held thrones in Spain, Naples, Sicily, and Parma...
. Many of the rolls were destroyed by the workmen, others were destroyed when extracted from the volcanic tuff
Tuff
Tuff is a type of rock consisting of consolidated volcanic ash ejected from vents during a volcanic eruption. Tuff is sometimes called tufa, particularly when used as construction material, although tufa also refers to a quite different rock. Rock that contains greater than 50% tuff is considered...
. It is uncertain how many papyri were originally found. The official list amounts to 1,814 rolls and fragments, of which 1,756 had been discovered by 1855. According to David Diringer
David Diringer
David Diringer was a British linguist, palaeographer and writer. He was the author of several well-known books about writing systems.- Bibliography :* The Alphabet: A Key to the History of Mankind; ISBN 81-215-0748-0...
more than 340 are almost complete, about 970 are partly decayed and partly decipherable, and more than 500 are merely charred fragments.
Attempts at unrolling were made by H. Davy
Humphry Davy
Sir Humphry Davy, 1st Baronet FRS MRIA was a British chemist and inventor. He is probably best remembered today for his discoveries of several alkali and alkaline earth metals, as well as contributions to the discoveries of the elemental nature of chlorine and iodine...
in 1818, and by F. C. Sickler in 1817–1819. From 1802 to 1806 the Rev. John Hayter unrolled and partly deciphered some 200 papyri.
In the middle of the 20th century only 585 rolls or fragments had been completely unrolled, and 209 unrolled in part. Of the unrolled papyri, about 200 had been deciphered and published, and about 150 deciphered only.
The bulk of the preserved manuscripts are housed in the Naples National Archaeological Museum
Naples National Archaeological Museum
The Naples National Archaeological Museum is a museum in Naples, southern Italy, at the northwest corner of the original Greek wall of the city of Neapolis. The museum contains a large collection of Roman artifacts from Pompeii, Stabiae and Herculaneum...
. In 1806 six rolls were presented to Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1810 eighteen unrolled papyri were given to George IV
George IV of the United Kingdom
George IV was the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and also of Hanover from the death of his father, George III, on 29 January 1820 until his own death ten years later...
, four of which he presented to the Bodleian Library
Bodleian Library
The Bodleian Library , the main research library of the University of Oxford, is one of the oldest libraries in Europe, and in Britain is second in size only to the British Library...
; the rest are now mainly in the British Library
British Library
The British Library is the national library of the United Kingdom, and is the world's largest library in terms of total number of items. The library is a major research library, holding over 150 million items from every country in the world, in virtually all known languages and in many formats,...
.
In 1969 the International Center for the Study of the Herculaneum Papyri (Centro Internazionale per lo Studio dei Papiri Ercolanesi – CISPE) was founded on the initiative of Marcello Gigante. The center was founded for two purposes: working toward the resumption of the excavation of the Villa of the Papyri and promoting the renewal of studies of the texts of Herculaneum.
Since 1999 the papyri have been digitized by applying multi-spectral imaging
Multi-spectral image
A multispectral image is one that captures image data at specific frequencies across the electromagnetic spectrum. The wavelengths may be separated by filters or by the use of instruments that are sensitive to particular wavelengths, including light from frequencies beyond the visible light range,...
(MSI) techniques and by the use of X-ray
X-ray
X-radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation. X-rays have a wavelength in the range of 0.01 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz and energies in the range 120 eV to 120 keV. They are shorter in wavelength than UV rays and longer than gamma...
s. International experts and prominent scholars participated in the project. On 4 June 2011 it was announced that the task of digitizing 1,600 Herculaneum papyri had been completed.
Significance
Until to the middle of the 18th century the only papyri known were a few survivals from mediaeval times. The scrolls, which were part of a library of GreekGreek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
and Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
texts from the Ancient era, would never have survived the Mediterranean climate
Mediterranean climate
A Mediterranean climate is the climate typical of most of the lands in the Mediterranean Basin, and is a particular variety of subtropical climate...
and would have crumbled or been lost.
These papyri, containing a large number of Greek philosophical texts
Greek philosophy
Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BCE and continued through the Hellenistic period, at which point Ancient Greece was incorporated in the Roman Empire...
, come from a single personal library
Library
In a traditional sense, a library is a large collection of books, and can refer to the place in which the collection is housed. Today, the term can refer to any collection, including digital sources, resources, and services...
, that of Philodemus
Philodemus
Philodemus of Gadara was an Epicurean philosopher and poet. He studied under Zeno of Sidon in Athens, before moving to Rome, and then to Herculaneum. He was once known chiefly for his poetry preserved in the Greek anthology, but since the 18th century, many writings of his have been discovered...
, the Epicurean
Epicureanism
Epicureanism is a system of philosophy based upon the teachings of Epicurus, founded around 307 BC. Epicurus was an atomic materialist, following in the steps of Democritus. His materialism led him to a general attack on superstition and divine intervention. Following Aristippus—about whom...
. Philodemus is identified as the author of 44 rolls. Large parts of Books XIV, XV, XXV, and XXVIII of the magnum opus of Epicurus
Epicurus
Epicurus was an ancient Greek philosopher and the founder of the school of philosophy called Epicureanism.Only a few fragments and letters remain of Epicurus's 300 written works...
, On Nature
On Nature (Epicurus)
On Nature is the name of a philosophical treatise written by Epicurus. It was a thirty-seven volume work. Numerous fragments have been found among the charred papyrus fragments at the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum ....
and works by early followers of Epicurus are also represented among the papyri.
External links
- BYU Herculaneum Project Honored with Mommsen Prize
- James I. Porter, Hearing Voices: The Herculaneum Papyri and Classical Scholarship
- International Center for the Study of the Herculaneum Papyri (Centro Internazionale per lo Studio dei Papiri Ercolanesi)
- UCLA Department of Classics: The Philodemus Project