The
Hehe are an ethnic and
linguisticLinguistics is the scientific study of human language. Linguistics can be broadly broken into three categories or subfields of study: language form, language meaning, and language in context....
group based in
Iringa RegionIringa is one of Tanzania's 26 administrative regions. The regional capital is Iringa. The total area is , of which land area is 56,864 km sq and water area is 2,070 km² ....
in south-central
TanzaniaThe United Republic of Tanzania is a country in East Africa bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, and Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique to the south. The country's eastern borders lie on the Indian Ocean.Tanzania is a state...
, speaking the Bantu
Hehe languageHehe is a Bantu language spoken by the Hehe people of the Iringa region of Tanzania. It was reported to have "Ngoni" features, that is, words of a Zulu-like language introduced when conquered by a Nguni or Zulu-like people in the early 19th century...
. In 1994, the Hehe population was estimated to number 750,000.
History
Their early
historyHistory is the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. History can also mean the period of time after writing was invented. Scholars who write about history are called historians...
is vague and mostly lost. The people who were eventually to be called Hehe by
EuropeEurope is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
ans, lived in isolation on a highland in southwestern Tanzania, northeast of Lake Nyasa (Lake Malawi), and had few ancestors who had been in Uhehe for more than four generations. With the exception of some pastoralists on the plains and some keeping a limited number of
cattleCattle are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, and are most commonly classified collectively as Bos primigenius...
and
goatThe domestic goat is a subspecies of goat domesticated from the wild goat of southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the Bovidae family and is closely related to the sheep as both are in the goat-antelope subfamily Caprinae. There are over three hundred distinct breeds of...
s, the Wahehe were primarily an agricultural people. In the beginning they seemed to have lived in relative peace, although the various chiefs did quarrel with one another, raided each other for cattle and broke alliances. The population was probably small, with no chiefdom over 5,000 people. By the middle of the 19th century, however, Nguruhe, one of the more important chiefdoms led by the
MuyingaMuyinga is a city located in northern Burundi. It is the capital city of Muyinga Province. It lies at an altitude of 1731 m and has a population of 48,997....
dynasty, began to push its weight around and expand its influence and power.
It was Munyigumbe, of the Muyinga family, who began to create the beginnings of a 'state' by both
marriageMarriage is a social union or legal contract between people that creates kinship. It is an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually intimate and sexual, are acknowledged in a variety of ways, depending on the culture or subculture in which it is found...
and
conquestConquest is the act of military subjugation of an enemy by force of arms. One example is the Norman conquest of England, which provided the subjugation of the Kingdom of England and the acquisition of the English crown by William the Conqueror in 1066...
. A good deal of this was at the expense of the Wasangu, using the Sangu's own military tactics and even utilizing forms of the
SanguThe Sangu, at times called Rori , are an ethnic and linguistic group based in southwestern Tanzania. By 1907 the Sangu numbers were thought to be about 30,000. In 1987 the Sangu population was estimated to number 75,000 ....
language to properly rouse Hehe warriors to battle. Munyigumba even forced the Wasangu, under Merere II, to move their capital to Usafwa.
With Munyigumbs's death in 1878 or 1879, a
civil warA civil war is a war between organized groups within the same nation state or republic, or, less commonly, between two countries created from a formerly-united nation state....
broke out and a Nymawezi slave, married to Munyigumba's sister, was able to kill Munyigumba's brother, leaving the unhappy prospect of dealing with Munyigumba's son Mkwawa. Mkwawa killed the Nyamwezi slave, Mwumbambe, at a location called the "place where heads are piled up", and Mkwawa took center stage, a stage that he continued to dominate until the end of the nineteenth century. Iliffe describes Mkwawa in his book,
A Modern History of Tanganyika as "slender, sharply intelligent, brutal, and cruel with a praise-name of the
madness of the year".
It was Mkwawa (the 'M' refers to an individual in contrast to 'Wa', the group, or 'U', the region) who, by 1880, became the sole ruler of Uhehe through war and intimidation. Mkwawa continued expanding Hehe power northwards toward the central caravan routes and afflicting the Wagogo, the Wakaguru, the
GermansThe Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe. The English term Germans has referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages....
, etc, and in the south and east, anyone in their way, not least of all their old enemies the Wasangu, who then began turning to the Germans for support. By 1890, the Hehe were the strongest most dominant power in the southeast and began conflicting with that other raiding power, the Germans.
'The Hehe' had no elaborate organization but did have the flexibility to make difficulties for their enemies. Their name may have come from their war cry, "hee twahumite, hee twahumite, he he he heeeeee"
("hey, we have come out",) and perhaps an urban legend, was originally given to them by their enemies. The Wahehe accepted it only after the Germans and British applied it consistently, and by then it had become a name of prestige.
The main reason for existence was war and was the primary occupation of every male. Their power depended on the
spearA spear is a pole weapon consisting of a shaft, usually of wood, with a pointed head.The head may be simply the sharpened end of the shaft itself, as is the case with bamboo spears, or it may be made of a more durable material fastened to the shaft, such as flint, obsidian, iron, steel or...
and on the disciplined force of their armed citizens. Even after firearms became more important the spear remained their chief weapon, for on the open plains the use of spears still had the advantage. The defense of a
bomaThe port town of Boma in Bas-Congo province was the capital city of the Congo Free State and Belgian Congo from 1 May 1886 to 1926, when it was moved to Léopoldville . It exports tropical timber, bananas, cacao, and palm products...
behind palisades or walls with
rifleA rifle is a firearm designed to be fired from the shoulder, with a barrel that has a helical groove or pattern of grooves cut into the barrel walls. The raised areas of the rifling are called "lands," which make contact with the projectile , imparting spin around an axis corresponding to the...
s was not their strong point, tactics and a sudden mass spear attack was.
Military organization remained the most important part of Wahehe life and every adult male was a warrior. The youngest lived in the capital,
IringaIringa is a city in Tanzania with a population of 112,900 . It is situated at a latitude of 7.77°S and longitude of 35.69°E. The name is derived from the Hehe word lilinga, meaning fort....
, where semi-professional warriors trained them. By the 1890s the Hehe had an immediate following of 2,000 to 3,000 men, with another 20,000 men of fighting age who could be mobilized from their scattered homesteads that by 1800 were normally surrounded by large
maizeMaize known in many English-speaking countries as corn or mielie/mealie, is a grain domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica in prehistoric times. The leafy stalk produces ears which contain seeds called kernels. Though technically a grain, maize kernels are used in cooking as a vegetable...
fields. It was only later when their military reputation alone was no longer enough and warfare was actually a threat, did they begin to consolidate their villages and begin to build their homes closer together. Only after the wars ended did they once again build further apart with each homestead ideally surrounded by their own fields, larger houses for their many wives were built and could be surrounded by an open courtyard.
While Iliffe considers the Wahehe state to have been unsophisticated, Lt. Nigmann considered the legal system, traditions, and customs to have been quite sophisticated. It is true, however, that all authority came from the chief's will and that conquered chiefdoms were not assimilated but were held by for force, brutality, and fear. Whether one considers the state to be unsophisticated or not, the state was at the same time successful and durable. A visitor it was repeatedly said, could sense an arrogant confidence that was not found elsewhere, and Hehe identity has survived all colonial pressures.
Women captured in war were given to important men, (some men having as many as ten to twenty) who then did almost all of the subsistence agriculture, carried water, and all building material, their housing being well insulated against the violent extremes of heat and cold. A child received his family name, (the praise name) and the types of forbidden food from the father. A Wahehe could not marry anyone with the same praise name and the same forbidden food, even if the relationship could not be traced, and could not marry anyone related through the female line. There was, however, a preference for marrying cross cousins. Most communities contained many households who were related to one another. Two cows and a bull were considered important parts of bride-wealth to be given for a wife.
Although
judgeA judge is a person who presides over court proceedings, either alone or as part of a panel of judges. The powers, functions, method of appointment, discipline, and training of judges vary widely across different jurisdictions. The judge is supposed to conduct the trial impartially and in an open...
s (headmen) were subject to
briberyBribery, a form of corruption, is an act implying money or gift giving that alters the behavior of the recipient. Bribery constitutes a crime and is defined by Black's Law Dictionary as the offering, giving, receiving, or soliciting of any item of value to influence the actions of an official or...
(and at times quite willing to accept it), there was a recognized system of courts and law enforcement. Punishment remained fairly simple but had at least some variety. There were penalties of varied types, such as fines or
penancePenance is repentance of sins as well as the proper name of the Roman Catholic, Orthodox Christian, and Anglican Sacrament of Penance and Reconciliation/Confession. It also plays a part in non-sacramental confession among Lutherans and other Protestants...
, the death sentence, beatings, and the seldom used expulsion from the chiefdom. (excepting the death penalty, crippling or anything attacking the health of the individual, or any type of failing was unknown to the Wahehe.) The village headman was authorized for lighter cases, such as theft or other crimes against property, adultery, personal injury, etc., with the more difficult cases being sent further up the line in the direction of the 'Sultan', especially those needing a test administrated by poison. All cases were presented orally and open to all. (Only trials of high treason against the Sultan were held in secret.) Two male witnesses were thought sufficient for most 'normal' cases while it was thought that three to five were necessary with female witnesses.
There could be verdicts for betraying or offending the state or its leader, giving false witness, adultery, (one female witness was sufficient, with a fine of one to three head of cattle)
incestIncest is sexual intercourse between close relatives that is usually illegal in the jurisdiction where it takes place and/or is conventionally considered a taboo. The term may apply to sexual activities between: individuals of close "blood relationship"; members of the same household; step...
(very seldom if ever used, since females were quite often married between 10 and 13 years of age and needed three to five witnesses),
rapeRape is a type of sexual assault usually involving sexual intercourse, which is initiated by one or more persons against another person without that person's consent. The act may be carried out by physical force, coercion, abuse of authority or with a person who is incapable of valid consent. The...
(only the victim was needed as a witness),
murderMurder is the unlawful killing, with malice aforethought, of another human being, and generally this state of mind distinguishes murder from other forms of unlawful homicide...
,
manslaughterManslaughter is a legal term for the killing of a human being, in a manner considered by law as less culpable than murder. The distinction between murder and manslaughter is said to have first been made by the Ancient Athenian lawmaker Dracon in the 7th century BC.The law generally differentiates...
,
vendettaA feud , referred to in more extreme cases as a blood feud, vendetta, faida, or private war, is a long-running argument or fight between parties—often groups of people, especially families or clans. Feuds begin because one party perceives itself to have been attacked, insulted or wronged by another...
, theft, agricultural theft, receiving stolen goods, and swindle were all parts of the judicial concept and had penalties associated with them.
If a divorce took place, the husband was entitled to take all weaned children away from their mother and the mother's family was expected to return the bride-wealth. In spite of this, wives frequently obtained divorces, usually after they had already made arrangements with another man.
The state's strength and power lay in its warriors and their spears, which made it not only disciplined and victorious, but also provided unity and identity, allowing everyone to join in its impressive successes.
HeHe Rebellion
The Wahehe were expanding towards the north and east at the same time the Germans were building stations along the central caravan route between the coast and
TaboraTabora is the capital city of Tanzania's Tabora Region with a population of 127,880 . Tabora region is one of the largest geographical regions of Tanzania.- History :...
. Those groups recognizing and accepting German supremacy (showing the German flag) were then brutally attacked, looted, and otherwise destroyed. After futile German attempts to negotiate with them, an expedition was sent out under the leadership of Commander Zelewski.
Since von Soden saw no harm, Zelewski was given the go ahead to attack the Wahehe. As Iliffe relates in
A Modern History of Tanganyika and Holger Doebold in
Emil Zelewski, with Lt. Tettenborn's official report; (The German Schutztruppe, needing to secure the inland area with its main trade and communications, Zelewski, its new commander, broke camp at 6:30, August 17, 1891, riding a donkey at the head of the column. "We burned 25 large village houses and killed 3 tribal warriors. A large group of Wahehe warriors were sighted with only spears and shields but few rifles. Shots from our side were enough to frighten them away." As its center reached the waiting Hehe, an officer shot at a bird. The Hehe grasped their spears and charged. The
AskariAskari is an Arabic, Bosnian, Urdu, Turkish, Somali, Persian, Amharic and Swahili word meaning "soldier" . It was normally used to describe local troops in East Africa, Northeast Africa, and Central Africa serving in the armies of European colonial powers...
fired only one or two rounds before they were overwhelmed. "The confusion increaseed when the pack dondeys of the artillery train panicked and stampeded into the 5th company. Soon the Askari also panicked. Lt. von Heydebreck managed to reach a nearby tembe with black officers Morgan Effendi and Gaber Effendi and twenty Askari." A sixteen year old had speared Zelewski on his donkey. In ten minutes most of the column was dead. "I also decided to retreat through the chaos of fleeing porters, pillaging Wahehe, dying warriors, and retreating wounded Askaris.
The rearguard escaped, occupied a hill, raised its flag, and sounded bugle calls to rally survivors. I sent a patrol to guide Lt. Heydebreck wounded twice by a spear behind his right ear and covered with blood, to our position. NCO Thiemann succumbed to his woulds on the night of 17 to 18 August and we buried him at our tembe position outside the sight of the Wahehe warriors." The Hehe set fire to the grass, burning some of the wounded and hoping to encircle the rearguard. Some 300-400 Hehe followed but did not attack, having already lost 60 dead. Another 200 later died of wounds. The Germans then retreated in the direction of
KondoaKondoa is one of the five districts of the Dodoma Region of Tanzania. It is bordered to the south by the Dodoma Rural district, and to the southeast by the Kongwa district....
. "Still with us are Lt. von Heydebreck, almost recovered from his wounds, Sergeant Kay, NCO Wutzer, Morgan Effendi, Gaber Effendi, 62 Askari (11 of them wounded), 74 porters (7 wounded), 4 donkeys, and the main part of our baggage.")
Lt. Tettenborn believed that if it had not been for the death of a large number of Wahehe chiefs, Mkwawa incorrectly included, no one would have survived. Saving the main 'part of the baggage' is also incorrect, it was not saved. Zelewski had started with 13 Europeans, some 320 Askaris, 170 porters,
machine gunA machine gun is a fully automatic mounted or portable firearm, usually designed to fire rounds in quick succession from an ammunition belt or large-capacity magazine, typically at a rate of several hundred rounds per minute....
s, and
field artilleryField artillery is a category of mobile artillery used to support armies in the field. These weapons are specialized for mobility, tactical proficiency, long range, short range and extremely long range target engagement....
. Of these ten Europeans, 256 Askaris, and 96 porters had been lost. The German defeat made a truly enormous impression and the Hehe had now gained reputation as the most powerful soldiers in German East Africa and the
SchutztruppeSchutztruppe was the African colonial armed force of Imperial Germany from the late 19th century to 1918, when Germany lost its colonies. Similar to other colonial forces, the Schutztruppe consisted of volunteer European commissioned and non-commissioned officers, medical and veterinary officers. ...
was no longer in a position to continue attacking the Wahehe.
Julius von SodenJulius Freiherr von Soden was a German colonial official and politician. He was Governor of the colonies of Kamerun and German East Africa, and later became Chef de Cabinet and Foreign Minister of the King of Württemberg....
, the governor now in charge of German East Africa, vetoed revenge. 'We should have digested the coast before we devoured the interior'. For eighteen months all expeditions were banned, even though the German military was unhappy. Particularly von Prince could not bring himself to leave the Hehe alone and used his forts in the north to invade south into Hehe territory.
Soden left in 1893, his concept ruined. With Colonel Freiherr von Schele the new governor, a super Hawk, we have the expedition of von Prince, Wynecken, and Zugführer Bauer in support of Merere. Negotiations had failed and caravans continued to be raided until the Germans attacked and took possession of Mkwawa's capital, Iringa, in 1894. (This time, however, the Germans were prepared with 609 Askari and three Machine-guns.) Mkwawa, though, was still not captured and the Hehe continued to attack their neighbors and kill Germans. There was still no peace. Only with Mkwawa's suicide did 'peace' finally come to Uhehe.
While von Schele, given credit for Mkwawa' final defeat and presented with Germany's highest decoration, was then continually attacked by the political doves and finally placed under civilian control from Berlin. Schele then resigned and was followed by more peaceful administrators for the next two years, who nevertheless continued to pressure the Wahehe.
(Tom von Prince, later after Mkwawa's defeat, indicated great offence with the Wahehe refusal to point out the youth responsible for Zelewski's death. Prince claimed that the German military would never have punished a warrior for following his orders.)
By 1896, the Hehe were divided, some of the beginning to submit to the Germans and Mkwawa found himself isolated as an outlaw, but always protected by the general Wahehe population. He raided, ambushed patrols, and attacked German outposts, aided by 'loyal Wahehe' and even Sangu warriors of Merere III (Son of Merere II). The Germans increased their campaign, searched again and again, even subjecting those who aided Mkwawa to the death penalty. They even tried setting up one of Mkwawa's brothers as chief, but had him executed after two months, holding him responsible for continuing attacks on German patrols.
It was only in July 1898, after being trapped that Mkwawa shot himself. The Germans removed Mkwawa's head and sent it to Germany. Mkwawa and the Hehe had become so well known that a clause was inserted in the Treaty of Versailles ordering the skull returned to Uhehe. It was found, not in Berlin but in Bremen, and was finally returned, not to Iringa, but to nearby Kalenga, and then not until 1954. The identity of the skull is questionable. Today all Africans remain quite aware of Mkwawa's history. Mkwawa still today had the status of a national hero in Tanzania, even after over a hundred years.
(The Wahehe never again revolted, not even during or after Maji Maji, but bureaucrats from Tanzania are still very wary of them. Energy, power, suspicion, intelligence, and a need for a strong hand, are still their characteristic today.)
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