The
Hawaiian sovereignty movement (ke ea Hawai‘i) is a nationalist political movement that consists of organizations and individuals seeking some form of sovereignty for Hawai'i. Generally, the movement's focus is on
self-determinationSelf-determination is the free choice of one’s own acts without external compulsion. In politics it is seen as the freedom of the people of a given territory or national grouping to determine their own political status and how they will be governed without undue influence from any other country...
and
self-governanceSelf-governance is an abstract concept that refers to several scales of organization.It may refer to personal conduct or family units but more commonly refers to larger scale activities, i.e., professions, industry bodies, religions and political units, up to and including autonomous regions and...
for people of whole or part Native Hawaiian ancestry or, in some cases, for "Hawaiian nationals", without regard to race or ancestry. In some instances the focus also includes redress from the
United StatesThe United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D...
for the 1893 overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani, and for what is seen as a prolonged
military occupationBelligerent military occupation occurs when the control and authority over a territory passes to a hostile army.-Military occupation and the laws of war:...
beginning in 1898 with the annexation of the
Republic of HawaiiThe Republic of Hawaii was the formal name of the government that controlled Hawaii from 1894 to 1898 when it was run as a republic. The republic period occurred between the administration of the Provisional Government of Hawaii which ended on July 4, 1894 and the adoption of the Newlands...
, an internationally recognized government, to the United States, and continuing until the present day. The movement generally views both the overthrow and annexation as illegal, and holds the U.S. government responsible for these actions. The historical and legal basis for these claims is one of considerable dispute. While the groups that comprise the movement share these common concerns, their views on how such goals should be achieved vary greatly, ranging from the establishment of some form of "Nation within a Nation" government (similar to the government of some Native American tribes) such as proposed in the
Akaka BillThe Native Hawaiian Government Reorganization Act of 2009 S1011/HR2314 is a bill before the 111th Congress. It is commonly known as the Akaka Bill after Senator Daniel Akaka of Hawaii, who has proposed various forms of this bill since 2000....
, to reparations from the U.S. government for historical grievances and an end to American military presence, to outright independence from the United States.
Forms
Although there are many efforts ongoing to achieve some form of sovereignty, the process of defining and achieving it is difficult. Proposed solutions range from complete independence from the United States to "nation-within-a-nation" (similar to the status of
Native AmericanNative Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples from North America now encompassed by the continental United States, including parts of Alaska and the island state of Hawaii. They comprise a large number of distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
tribes but based purely on race) status as proposed by the
Akaka BillThe Native Hawaiian Government Reorganization Act of 2009 S1011/HR2314 is a bill before the 111th Congress. It is commonly known as the Akaka Bill after Senator Daniel Akaka of Hawaii, who has proposed various forms of this bill since 2000....
. Among those who advocate for complete independence, proposals range from a reinstatement of a racial hereditary monarchy, to constitutional democracies with tiered citizenship based on race, to governments exclusively controlled only by members with the correct racial background. The
Office of Hawaiian AffairsThe Office of Hawaiian Affairs, also popularly known by its acronym OHA, is a semi-autonomous entity of the state of Hawaii charged with the administration of 1.8 million acres of royal land held in trust for the benefit of native Hawaiians...
(OHA) already exists as a state-sponsored commission but is regarded as ineffective; one highly controversial "nation-within-a-nation" proposal has been repeatedly brought to the U.S. Senate (see
Akaka BillThe Native Hawaiian Government Reorganization Act of 2009 S1011/HR2314 is a bill before the 111th Congress. It is commonly known as the Akaka Bill after Senator Daniel Akaka of Hawaii, who has proposed various forms of this bill since 2000....
) by U.S. Senator
Daniel AkakaDaniel Kahikina Akaka is the junior U.S. Senator from Hawaii and a member of the Democratic Party. He is the first U.S. Senator of Native Hawaiian ancestry and is currently the only member of the Senate who has Chinese ancestry...
.
Most, but not all, formal sovereignty proposals focus on short-range, interim governmental structures, recognizing that given Hawaii's profound economic and political integration into the United States, to have any hope of success or support, any long-term solution must be developed incrementally with the approval of the
United NationsThe United Nations Organization or simply United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and the achieving of world peace...
. As most groups are focused on some manner of
international legalPublic international law concerns the structure and conduct of sovereign states, analogous entities, such as the Holy See, and intergovernmental organizations. To a lesser degree, international law also may affect multinational corporations and individuals, an impact increasingly evolving beyond...
solution, many (but not all) proposed structures are based on the kingdom that existed in 1893, the logical basis being that the undoing of the 1893 overthrow might legally necessitate a return to the pre-overthrow government that existed before 1893. Many groups do include some long-range ideas in their proposals, but it can be said that the immediate focus of the sovereignty movement is generally upon the immediate problem of overcoming what they see as American
occupationBelligerent military occupation occurs when the control and authority over a territory passes to a hostile army.-Military occupation and the laws of war:...
and/or colonization of the islands.
Since April 30, 2008, members of a group calling themselves the Hawaiian Kingdom Government have occupied the grounds of the Iolani Palace in Honolulu. Led by Mahealani Kahau, who has taken the title of "Queen", and Jessica Wright, who has taken the title of "Princess," they have been meeting each day to conduct government business and demand sovereignty for Hawaii and the restoration of the monarchy. They have been able to occupy the grounds by repeatedly applying for a public-assembly permit.
History of resistance
Liliuokalani's own response to her overthrow changed over the years. Although at first she worked to effect a counter-revolution, eventually she reconciled herself to the course Hawaii had taken. Opponents of the Hawaiian sovereignty movements see this as ex post facto justification for the overthrow, whereas sovereignty advocates dismiss this as a purely personal position taken by the ex-Queen that does not bear on their legal assertions.
- The best thing for [Native Hawaiians] that could have happened was to belong to the United States. - written in the 1903 autobiography of Senator George Hoar (R. Mass.), attributed to Liliuokalani.
- Tho' for a moment it cost me a pang of pain for my people it was only momentary, for the present has a hope for the future of my people. - former Queen Liliuokalani in her diary, Sunday, September 2, 1900; from a photostatic copy in the Hawaii State Archives (See DeSoto Brown's article in the Honolulu Weekly, June 4-10, 2003, Page 4)
Although there was some controversy as to the accuracy of the second quote, research done by DeSoto Brown of the
Bishop MuseumThe Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, designated the Hawaii State Museum of Natural and Cultural History, is a museum of history and science in the historic Kalihi district of Honolulu on the Hawaiian island of O'ahu. Founded in 1889, it is the largest museum in Hawai'i and is home to the world's...
, who was originally doubtful, was able to prove its authenticity.
In recognition of the 100th year since the overthrow, sovereignty activist Dallas Kealiihooneiaina Mossman Vogeler directed a three-day re-enactment of the event on the grounds of Iolani Palace in Honolulu. Tens of thousands of people witnessed the play, which was also broadcast on Hawaii Public Radio. For her efforts, the Honolulu Star-Bulletin named Vogeler one of "10 Who Made a Difference" in Hawaii in 1993. (See Honolulu Star-Bulletin dated Jan. 3, 1994, Pages A6 and A7.)
Historical — Royalist Organizations (1890s-present)
Following the enactment of the Bayonet Constitution by King Kalākaua under threat of armed force and Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom by mainly white residents against the indigenous government of the
Kingdom of HawaiiThe Kingdom of Hawaii was established during the years 1795 to 1810 with the subjugation of the smaller independent chiefdoms of Oahu, Maui, Molokai, Lānai, Kauai and Niihau by the chiefdom of Hawaii into one unified government...
. In response rebel and pro-Hawaiian organizations formed in support of the monarchy and the
native peopleNative Hawaiians refers to the indigenous Polynesian people of the Hawaiian Islands or their descendants...
and were known as “Royalists”.
Kingdom of Hawaii (in exile, 1893-1895)
Following the Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom, Queen Liliuokalani did not formally abdicate the throne and the Hawaiian Kingdom became a
government in exileA government in exile is a political group that claims to be a country's legitimate government, but for various reasons is unable to exercise its legal power, and instead resides in a foreign country. Governments in exile usually operate under the assumption that they will one day return to their...
. With aid from
Grover ClevelandStephen Grover Cleveland was the 22nd and 24th President of the United States. Cleveland is the only president to serve two non-consecutive terms and therefore is the only individual to be counted twice in the numbering of the presidents...
, she and Cleveland lobbied for the restoration of her government and postponed annexation, even
threatening military force to return her to powerOpposition to the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom took several forms. Following the Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom the revolutionists attempted to annex Hawaii to the United States under the Republican Benjamin Harrison administration. But the Treaty of Annexation came under the...
. After the
Uprising of 1895The 1895 Counter-revolution in Hawaii also known as the Second Wilcox Rebellion of 1895, the Revolution of 1895, the Hawaiian Counter-revolution of 1895, the 1895 Uprising in Hawaii, the Hawaiian Civil War the 1895 Uprising Against the Provisional Government, or the Uprising of 1895 was a brief...
Liliuokalani formally abdicated the throne and the defunct Kingdom of Hawaii to prevent further bloodshed.
Insurgency
Following the Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom, Sam Nowlein, former Head of the Royal Guard with
Joseph NawahiJoseph Nawahi also known as Joseph Kahooluhi Nāwahī and as Joseph Kahooluhi Nāwahīokalaniōpuu was a native Hawaiian legislator, lawyer, newspaper publisher, and painter.-Life:...
,
Charles T. GulickCharles Thomas Gulick was a politician in the Kingdom of Hawaii. He was one of the few members of missionary families to side with the monarchy in the 1893 overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii.-Life:...
, and William H. Rickard, began an arms build up and training insurgents in 1894 to return Queen Liliuokalani to power. In 1895 the plot was exposed leading to a war between the insurgents and the
Republic of HawaiiThe Republic of Hawaii was the formal name of the government that controlled Hawaii from 1894 to 1898 when it was run as a republic. The republic period occurred between the administration of the Provisional Government of Hawaii which ended on July 4, 1894 and the adoption of the Newlands...
known as the
Uprising of 1895The 1895 Counter-revolution in Hawaii also known as the Second Wilcox Rebellion of 1895, the Revolution of 1895, the Hawaiian Counter-revolution of 1895, the 1895 Uprising in Hawaii, the Hawaiian Civil War the 1895 Uprising Against the Provisional Government, or the Uprising of 1895 was a brief...
. The rebels were forced into the Koʻolaus where fighting continued for a week after the uprising.
Liberal Patriotic Association
The Liberal Patriotic Association was a rebel group formed by
Robert WilcoxRobert William Kalanihiapo Wilcox , nicknamed the Iron Duke of Hawaii, was a native Hawaiian revolutionary soldier and politician. He led uprisings against both the government of the Kingdom of Hawaii under King Kalākaua and the Republic of Hawaii under Sanford Dole, what are now known as the...
, to force King Kalākaua to overturn the Bayonet Constitution. The faction was financed by Chinese businessmen who lost rights under the Bayonet Constitution. The plot was initiated in what became known as the
Wilcox Rebellion of 1889The Wilcox Rebellion of 1889 was a revolt led by Robert Wilcox to force King Kalākaua of Hawaii to reenact the Hawaiian Constitution of 1864 from the Constitution of 1887....
ending in failure with seven dead and 70 captured.
Home Rule Party of Hawaii
Following the annexation of Hawaii
Robert WilcoxRobert William Kalanihiapo Wilcox , nicknamed the Iron Duke of Hawaii, was a native Hawaiian revolutionary soldier and politician. He led uprisings against both the government of the Kingdom of Hawaii under King Kalākaua and the Republic of Hawaii under Sanford Dole, what are now known as the...
formed the
Home Rule Party of HawaiiAs soon as the United States annexed the Hawaiian Islands and established the Territory of Hawaii, native Hawaiians became worried that both the Democratic Party of Hawai‘i and Hawai‘i Republican Party were incapable of representing them...
on June 6, 1900. The Party was generally more radical than the Democratic Party of Hawaii. They were able to dominate the Territorial Legislature between 1900 and 1902. But due to their
radicalIn political science, the terms political radicalism and radicalism denote radical political principles. Derived from the Latin radix , the denotation of radical has changed since its eighteenth-century coinage to comprehend the entire political spectrum — yet retains the “change at the root”...
and
extremeExtremism is a term used to describe the actions or ideologies of individuals or groups outside the perceived political center of a society; or otherwise claimed to violate common moral standards...
philosophy of Hawaiian
nationalismNationalism involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a political entity defined in national terms, i.e. a nation. Often, it is the belief that an ethnic group has a right to statehood , or that citizenship in a state should be limited to one ethnic group, or that...
, infighting was prominent in addition to their refusal to work with other parties, they were unable to pass any legislation. Following the election of 1902 they steadily declined until they disbanded in 1912.
Democratic Party of Hawaii
The Democratic Party of Hawaii was established April 30, 1900 by John H. Wilson, John S. McGrew,
Charles J. McCarthyCharles James McCarthy was the fifth Territorial Governor of Hawai'i and served from 1918 to 1921.McCarthy was born August 4, 1861 in Boston, Massachusetts, to Charles McCarthy and Joana McCarthy. McCarthy moved with his parents to San Francisco, California in 1866...
,
David KawānanakoaPrince David Laamea Kahalepouli Kinoiki Kawānanakoa Piikoi , was the patriarch of the House of Kawānanakoa. He was in the line of succession to the throne of the Kingdom of Hawaii around the time of the kingdom's overthrow.-Life:...
and Delbert Metzger. The Party was generally more pragmatic than the radical Home Rule Party, which included gaining sponsorship from the American
Democratic PartyThe Democratic Party is one of two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The party's modern liberal platform is largely considered center-left in the U.S. political spectrum. The party boasts the lengthiest record of continuous operation in the...
. They attempted to bring representation to
Native HawaiiansNative Hawaiians refers to the indigenous Polynesian people of the Hawaiian Islands or their descendants...
in the
territorial governmentThe Territory of Hawaiii was a United States territory that existed from July 7, 1898, until August 21, 1959, when it was admitted to the Union as its fiftieth state, the State of Hawaii....
and effectively lobbied to set aside 200,000 acres under the
Hawaiian Homes Commission Act of 1920Hawaiian Homelands were lands dedicated to Native Hawaiians by legislation known as the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act of 1921.-History:Upon the 1893 Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom, the idea for "Hawaiian Homelands" was first born...
for Hawaiians.
Bishop Estate
Following the death of
Bernice Pauahi BishopBernice Pauahi Bishop , born Bernice Pauahi Pākī, was a Hawaiian philanthropist, alii, and direct descendant of the royal House of Kamehameha. She was the great-granddaughter of King Kamehameha I and last surviving heir...
, her husband,
Charles Reed BishopCharles Reed Bishop was a businessman and philanthropist in Hawaii.Born in Glens Falls, New York, he sailed to Hawaii in 1846 at the age of 24, and ended up making his home there...
, used the
estateAn estate is the net worth of a person at any point in time. It is the sum of a person's assets - legal rights, interests and entitlements to property of any kind - less all liabilities at that time. The issue is of special legal significance on a question of bankruptcy and death of the person...
for the betterment of the Hawaiian people particularly children and with education, according to the Princess’s dying wishes. He founded
Bishop MuseumThe Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, designated the Hawaii State Museum of Natural and Cultural History, is a museum of history and science in the historic Kalihi district of Honolulu on the Hawaiian island of O'ahu. Founded in 1889, it is the largest museum in Hawai'i and is home to the world's...
and
Kamehameha SchoolsKamehameha Schools, formerly called Kamehameha Schools/Bishop Estate , is a private co-educational college-preparatory institution in Hawaii that operates three campuses: Kapālama , Pukalani , and Keaau . Kamehameha serves over 6,500 students from preschool through the twelfth grade...
. He made preparations for the estate to continue after his death which came in 1915. The Bishop Estate continues to be one of the largest land holders in Hawaii.
ALOHA
ALOHA, or Aboriginal Lands of Hawaiian Ancestry, may have been organized in 1969 or 1972. According to Rich Budnick's book
Hawaii's Forgotten History, the group was established by Louisa Rice in 1969. Charles Kauluwehi Maxwell claims that it was first organized in the summer of 1972.
On July 27, 1973, Maxwell, then-president of ALOHA, sought reparations from the U.S. government for the government and crown lands claimed by the Republic of Hawaii in 1894, transferred to the U.S. government in 1900, and then transferred back to the State of Hawaii in 1959. He specifically demanded the return of
KahoolaweKahoolawe is the smallest of the eight main volcanic islands in the Hawaiian Islands. It is located 7 miles southwest of Maui and southeast of Lānai and is long by wide, with a total area of . The highest point is the crater of Lua Makika at the summit of Puu Moaulanui, which is above sea level...
, saying, "Our kupuna [elders] saw it first." He informed the Maui County Council in late 1973 that his organization's "primary objective [was] to seek land or money reparations from the United States Congress".
It is unclear if ALOHA is still an active organization.
Office of Hawaiian Affairs
Of the groups in the current Hawaiian sovereignty movement, the best funded is the
Office of Hawaiian AffairsThe Office of Hawaiian Affairs, also popularly known by its acronym OHA, is a semi-autonomous entity of the state of Hawaii charged with the administration of 1.8 million acres of royal land held in trust for the benefit of native Hawaiians...
(OHA). OHA, a department of The State of Hawaii, was created in 1978 by the State of Hawaii Constitutional Convention. OHA's stated purpose was to represent the interests of Native Hawaiians in the administration of the
Hawaiian HomelandsHawaiian Homelands were lands dedicated to Native Hawaiians by legislation known as the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act of 1921.-History:Upon the 1893 Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom, the idea for "Hawaiian Homelands" was first born...
and the
Ceded LandsIn Hawaii, the term "ceded lands" refers to 1.8 million acres of land that were the crown lands of the Hawaiian monarchy prior to January 17, 1893, lotted out by Kamehameha III during the Great Mahele. On this date, the government of the Hawaiian Kingdom was overthrown by anti-monarchial...
— land formerly belonging to the Hawaiian government and crown that were ceded to the United States as public lands when the islands were annexed in 1898. When the
Territory of HawaiiThe Territory of Hawaiii was a United States territory that existed from July 7, 1898, until August 21, 1959, when it was admitted to the Union as its fiftieth state, the State of Hawaii....
became a state in 1959, these lands were passed to the new state. The act transferring them ordered that they be administered for five public purposes:
- The support of public education
- The betterment of the conditions of native Hawaiians as defined in the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act of 1920
- The development of farm and home ownership
- The making of public improvements
- The provision of lands for public use
Because there was strong sentiment that the second purpose had been largely ignored, part of OHA's charter was to address this issue. Originally, OHA trustees were to be elected only by Native Hawaiians, but in 2000 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in
Rice v. CayetanoRice v. Cayetano, 528 U.S. 495 , was a case filed in 1996 by Big Island rancher Harold "Freddy" Rice against the state of Hawaii and argued before the United States Supreme Court...
that this restriction was unconstitutionally race-based. As a result, OHA trustees are now elected by all registered voters in the state.
The OHA Board of Trustees has historically been known for factional infighting that some believe hamper its mission for helping Native Hawaiians.
Ka Lahui
Ka Lahui Hawaii was formed in 1987 as a grassroots initiative for Hawaiian sovereignty. The Trask sisters, attorney and U.N. Representative
Mililani TraskMililani Trask is a leader of the Hawaiian sovereignty movement and a political speaker and attorney. One of Trask's contributions to the Hawaiian sovereignty movement was her founding of Na Koa Ikaika o Ka Lāhui Hawaii, a native Hawaiian non-governmental organization.Outside of Hawaii, Trask has...
and University of Hawaii professor
Haunani-Kay TraskHaunani-Kay Trask is a Native Hawaiian academic, activist, documentarist and writer. Trask is a professor of Hawaiian Studies with the Kamakakuokalani Center for Hawaiian Studies at the University of Hawaii at Manoa and has represented Native Hawaiians in the United Nations and various other...
, were prominent in the effort. Mililani Trask was elected the first kiaaina (governor) of Ka Lahui. Native Hawaiians, as well as non-Native Hawaiians, may sign up as citizens of Ka Lahui. One of the group's goals is to bargain with the United States government for recognition, land, and restitution, while lobbying at the
United NationsThe United Nations Organization or simply United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and the achieving of world peace...
for
decolonizationDecolonization refers to the undoing of colonialism, the establishment of governance or authority through the creation of settlements by another country or jurisdiction. The term generally refers to the achievement of independence by the various Western colonies and protectorates in Asia and...
relief. Their model shares some similarity to certain Indian reservations of the U.S. continent, which have increasingly become self-governing. Many thousands of Native Hawaiians, along with many non-natives, have signed up as members. Ka Lahui has attracted many critics; many of these critics question the degree to which Ka Lahui citizens actually participated in the affairs of the group after signing their name.
Ka Lahui opposes the "
Akaka BillThe Native Hawaiian Government Reorganization Act of 2009 S1011/HR2314 is a bill before the 111th Congress. It is commonly known as the Akaka Bill after Senator Daniel Akaka of Hawaii, who has proposed various forms of this bill since 2000....
" proposed by Senator Daniel Akaka that recognizes Native Hawaiians as a
first nation on par with
Native AmericansNative Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples from North America now encompassed by the continental United States, including parts of Alaska and the island state of Hawaii. They comprise a large number of distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
and Alaskan tribes, as the group (along with most other sovereignty organizations) sees it as a poor compromise, and believes that the ramifications in terms of
international lawPublic international law concerns the structure and conduct of sovereign states, analogous entities, such as the Holy See, and intergovernmental organizations. To a lesser degree, international law also may affect multinational corporations and individuals, an impact increasingly evolving beyond...
outweigh the bill's benefits. Although Ka Lāhui may oppose the Akaka Bill, its founding member and first governor, Mililani Trask, supported the original Akaka Bill and was a member of a group that crafted the original bill. Trask withdrew her support for the bill later, when changes were made to the Akaka Bill under the Bush Administration.
Ka Pakaukau: Kekuni Blaisdell
Dr. Richard Kekuni Akana Blaisdell is a medical doctor and professor of medicine who strongly advocates for the total independence for Hawaii. The position of Dr. Blaisdell's group, Ka Pakaukau, is that Hawaii does not need to secede from the U.S., for the U.S. has the moral obligation to "return what it has stolen" and to remove its "occupying forces" (i.e. the U.S. military) from Hawaiian lands. Blaisdell advocates putting continual non-violent pressure on the U.S. military to vacate Hawaii. He also feels that the military has an unmet obligation to clean up the pollution it has left in areas such as Pearl Harbor and Kaho'olawe. Blaisdell has travelled numerous times to the United Nations in Geneva, Switzerland to advocate for international recognition of Hawaii as a rightful independent nation under illegal colonial occupation, and to lobby for international assistance with the process of decolonization.
In 1993, Blaisdell convened Ka Hookolokolonui Kanaka Maoli, the "People's International Tribunal", which brought indigenous leaders from around the world to Hawaii to put the U.S. Government on trial for the theft of Hawaii's sovereignty, and other related violations of international law. The tribunal found the U.S. guilty, and published its findings in a lengthy document filed with the U.N. Committees on Human Rights and Indigenous Affairs.
Poka Laenui (Hayden Burgess)
Hayden Burgess now goes by the Hawaiian name Poka Laenui and heads the
Institute for the Advancement of Hawaiian Affairs. A lawyer, Laenui argues that because the "U.S. armed invasion and overthrow"
http://www.multiworld.org/m_versity/articles/poka.htm of the Hawaiian monarchy was illegal, the current government of the state is illegal, and that residents owe it no fealty or taxes. He advocates a process of
decolonizationDecolonization refers to the undoing of colonialism, the establishment of governance or authority through the creation of settlements by another country or jurisdiction. The term generally refers to the achievement of independence by the various Western colonies and protectorates in Asia and...
, resulting in a totally independent government that would include all non-Hawaiians living in Hawaii. He uses other island nations who are achieving decolonization throughout the Pacific as his primary model.
Laenui has regularly analyzed Hawaii's historical, political, and economic situation on his talk shows, which air on radio and on community-access cable channel Ōlelo TV.
Hawaiian Kingdom: David Keanu Sai
Another leader who seeks to expose what is seen as the prolonged occupation of Hawaii by the United States is
David Keanu Sai. Trained as a U.S. military officer, Sai uses the title of Chairman of the Acting Council of Regency of the
Hawaiian Kingdom. Sai has done extensive historical research, especially on the treaties between Hawaii and other nations, and
military occupationBelligerent military occupation occurs when the control and authority over a territory passes to a hostile army.-Military occupation and the laws of war:...
and the laws of war. Sai recently finished his doctoral program in political science at the University of Hawaii, where he founded the
Hawaiian Society of Law and Politics, which publishes the
Hawaiian Journal of Law and Politics.
Sai co-founded a Hawaiian title company, Perfect Title, which stated that all land transactions since the overthrow of the monarchy were invalid if superseded by legitimate pre-existing claims; some clients refused to make mortgage payments and lost their property. In 1997, the offices of Perfect Title were raided, and the company was barred from filing any documents with the state Bureau of Conveyances for 5 years, effectively shutting the company down. A jury on December 1, 1999, unanimously found Mr. Sai guilty of attempted theft of title to a house (value approximately $300,000) for his role as an accessory to a man and woman who used his Perfect Title services to attempt to invalidate a foreclosure on their house. For his felony conviction, David Keanu Sai was sentenced to 5 years probation and a $200 fine on March 7, 2000. His appeal was
denied by the Hawaii Supreme Court on July 20, 2004.
Sai claimed to represent the Hawaiian Kingdom in a case brought before the World Court's
Permanent Court of ArbitrationThe Permanent Court of Arbitration , is an international organization based in The Hague in the Netherlands.It was established in 1899 as one of the acts of the first Hague Peace Conference, which makes it the oldest institution for international dispute resolution.The creation of the PCA is set...
at the Hague, in the Netherlands (
Larsen v. Hawaiian Kingdom;
Honolulu Weekly item) in December 2000. Although the arbitration was agreed to by Lance Paul Larsen and David Keanu Sai, with Larsen suing Sai for not protecting his rights as a Hawaiian Kingdom subject, his actual goal was to have U.S. rule in Hawaii declared in breach of mutual treaty obligations and international law. The arbiters of the case affirmed that there was no dispute they could decide upon, because the United States was not a party to the arbitration. As stated in the award from the arbitration panel,
in the absence of the United States of America, the Tribunal can neither decide that Hawaii is not part of the USA, nor proceed on the assumption that it is not. To take either course would be to disregard a principle which goes to heart of the arbitral function in international law.
Kingdom of Hawai`i
The Interim Provisional Government Council and Privy Council assembled pursuant to the
Law of Nations and the Constitution and laws of the
Kingdom of Hawai`i on April 15, 1994 and signed its
position paper on June 20, 1994. Amendments were made on August 23, 1998. The primary mission is to reinstate the
Kingdom of Hawai`i, also known as
Hawaiian Kingdom,
Government of the Hawaiian Islands pursuant to the
Law of Nations and
Recognition Doctrine by educating qualified men to assembly the legislative body and bring forth the
Kingdom of Hawai`i and its
Government out of an impaired state and rejoin the
Family of Nations.
Apology
Due to efforts by the various Hawaiian sovereignty movements and other Native-Hawaiian activist groups, the United States government issued an apology. Some with a different perspective of the historical record (see "Opposition" below) sharply disagree with the apology, questioning its accuracy and validity.
On November 15, 1993, President of the United States
Bill ClintonWilliam Jefferson "Bill" Clinton was the 42nd President of the United States from 1993 to 2001. At 46 he was the third-youngest president. He became president at the end of the Cold War, and was the first baby boomer president. His wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton, is currently the United States...
signed an
Apology ResolutionApology Resolution is an informal term used to describe a Joint Resolution of the U.S. Congress adopted in 1993 that "acknowledges that the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii occurred with the active participation of agents and citizens of the United States and further acknowledges that the Native...
apologizing on behalf of the American people for the U.S. Government's role in the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy. In
Hawaii v. Office of Hawaiian Affairs (2009), the decision of the U.S. Supreme Court of March 31, 2009 was that the "whereas" clauses of the Apology Resolution have no binding effect, and the resolution does not change or modify the title to the public lands of the State of Hawaii.
Native Hawaiian Study Commission
The Native Hawaiian Study Commission of the United States Congress in its 1983 final report found no historical, legal, or moral obligation for the U.S. government to provide reparations, assistance, or group rights to Native Hawaiians. (pages 27, 333-338)
Opposition
There has also been something of a backlash against the concept of ancestry-based sovereignty, which critics maintain is tantamount to racial exclusion . In 1996, in
Rice v. CayetanoRice v. Cayetano, 528 U.S. 495 , was a case filed in 1996 by Big Island rancher Harold "Freddy" Rice against the state of Hawaii and argued before the United States Supreme Court...
, one
Big IslandThe Island of Hawaii, also called the Big Island or Hawaii Island , is a volcanic island in the North Pacific Ocean...
rancher sued to win the right to vote in OHA elections, asserting that every Hawaiian citizen regardless of racial background should be able to vote for a state office, and that limiting the vote to Native Hawaiians only was racist. In 2000, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in his favor and OHA elections are now open to all registered voters. In reaching its decision, the court wrote that "the ancestral inquiry mandated by the State is forbidden by the Fifteenth Amendment for the further reason that the use of racial classifications is corruptive of the whole legal order democratic elections seek to preserve....Distinctions between citizens solely because of their ancestry are by their very nature odious to a free people whose institutions are founded upon the doctrine of equality".
Of further concern is the implication that claims for hereditary political power are connected to land claims. Proponents of sovereignty assume that if they can show that American presence at the time of the 1893 Revolution was unjust then it automatically follows that the United States owes enormous reparations in cash and land to Hawaiians.
There were three kinds of land in 1893: private lands, Crown lands, and government lands. No private lands were seized as a result of the 1893 Revolution.
Crown lands in 1893 belonged not to any individual or to any group of individuals but to the “office” of the Sovereign. In 1893, The Government of the Republic of Hawai'i provided explicitly that the former Crown lands were Government lands. The Crown lands in 1893 were the last remnant of lands seized by Lili'uokalani's royal predecessor Kamehameha I in aggressive warfare. People who believe that title to the land today is invalid because it is founded on conquest may be hard put to explain why Lili'uokalani's claim was not equally invalid.
The Hawaiian Kingdom Government lands in 1893 were controlled ultimately by the Legislature. Private individuals had no powers, rights or privileges to use government land without Government authorization or to decide how it was to be used. If Hawaiians had any rights or powers regarding Government land, they had only the political right and power to participate in controlling the Government. Most ethnic Hawaiians then had no power to lose; they were a minority in Hawai'i and most of them could not even vote. As the term “sovereignty” suggests, what was at stake in 1893 was political power over the government and hence over the Government Lands and the Crown Lands (which had come under control of a government commission in 1865). Legally, the land belonging to the Hawaiian Government in 1898 has passed to the U.S. Government and back to the State of Hawai'i. People alive now have a democratic right to decide by majority vote how government land should be used now. No one deserves more than equality.
Although the
Apology ResolutionApology Resolution is an informal term used to describe a Joint Resolution of the U.S. Congress adopted in 1993 that "acknowledges that the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii occurred with the active participation of agents and citizens of the United States and further acknowledges that the Native...
passed 65 to 34 in the U.S. Senate and by a two-thirds voice vote in the House, and without much public notice outside Hawaii, the
Akaka BillThe Native Hawaiian Government Reorganization Act of 2009 S1011/HR2314 is a bill before the 111th Congress. It is commonly known as the Akaka Bill after Senator Daniel Akaka of Hawaii, who has proposed various forms of this bill since 2000....
has generated a higher profile for the issues involved. An organized opposition now challenges the accuracy of historical claims and constitutionality of legislation they view as racially exclusive.
Opponents have called into question the accuracy of the Apology Resolution in that it is based upon an interpretation of the historical record that opponents reject.
When the Apology Bill was debated on the Senate floor, Senator Slade Gorton asked Senator Inouye:
“Is this purely a self-executing resolution which has no meaning other than its own passage, or is this, in [the proponent Senators'] minds, some form of claim, some form of different or distinct treatment for those who can trace a single ancestor back to 1778 in Hawai'i which is now to be provided for this group of citizens, separating them from other citizens of the State of Hawai'i or the United States?
What are the appropriate consequences of passing this resolution? Are they any form of special status under which persons of Native Hawaiian descent will be given rights or privileges or reparations or land or money communally that are unavailable to other citizens of Hawai'i?”
Senator Inouye replied:
“As I tried to convince my colleagues, this is a simple resolution of apology, to recognize the facts as they were 100 years ago. As to the matter of the status of Native Hawaiians, as my colleagues from Washington knows, from the time of statehood, we have been in this debate. Are Native Hawaiians Native Americans? This resolution has nothing to do with that....I can assure my colleagues of that. It is a simple resolution.”
Hawaiian sovereignty activists and advocates
- Keoni Agard
- S. Haunani Apoliona
S. Haunani Apoliona is a native Hawaiian elder and activist for the Hawaiian sovereignty movement. Held in great esteem among Hawaii residents, Apoliona was elected to the Office of Hawaiian Affairs Board of Trustees and became its chairperson...
(current chair of OHA)
- Francis A. Boyle (professor of international law, University of Illinois
The University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign is a public research university in the state of Illinois, United States. It is the oldest, largest, and most prestigious campus in the University of Illinois system...
http://www.law.uiuc.edu/faculty/DirectoryResult.asp?Name=Boyle,%20Francis)
- Bu Laia
Bu La'ia is a Hawaiian comedian known for his use of Hawaiian pidgin and for wearing a large "afro style" wig and blacking out one of his front teeth while performing. He starred in a cable television show in the early 1990s and released a comic musical album entitled False Crack???...
, comedian
- Walter Calistro
- Jonathan Sanabria
- Scott Crawford http://hawaiiankingdom.info/
- Lynette Hiilani Cruz
- George Helm
George Jarrett Helm, Jr. was a Native Hawaiian activist and musician from Kalamaula, Molokai, Hawaii. He graduated from St. Louis High School on Oahu, about which he said, "I came to Oahu to get educated. Instead I lost my innocence." While at St...
(musician) and Kimo Mitchell (both d. 1977)
- Mahealani Kahau, the chosen "Monarch" of the Hawaiian Kingdom Government.
- Israel Kamakawiwoole
Israel "Iz" Kaanoi Kamakawiwoole was a Hawaiian musician, and nephew to entertainer Moe Keale.He became famous outside Hawaii when his album Facing Future was released in 1993...
(musician; d. 1997)
- Lilikala Kameeleihiwa
Lilikala K. Kameʻeleihiwa is a Hawaiian artist and director and professor at the University of Hawaiʻi's Center for Hawaiian Studies. Her earliest work was published under the name of Lilikala L. Dorton....
- Dennis "Bumpy" Kanahele
Dennis "Bumpy" Pu‘uhonua Kanahele is a Hawaiian nationalist leader and titular head of state of the group Nation of Hawai'i. He spearheaded the founding of , a Hawaiian cultural village and traditional lo‘i kalo agricultural restoration project in Waimānalo, Hawai‘i...
(claims to be a descendant of Kamehameha the Great)
- J. Kehaulani Kauanui, Ph.D.
- Poka Laenui, aka Hayden Burgess
- Rev. Charles Kauluwehi Maxwell Sr.
- Paul Christiaan Klieger (anthropologist, historian)
- Jon Osorio (scholar and musician)
- Rev. Kaleo Patterson
- Kawaipuna Prejean
Gayle Kawaipuna Prejean was a Hawaiian nationalist, activist and advocate for the Hawaiian sovereignty movement...
(d. 1992)
- Noenoe K. Silva (political scientist, University of Hawaii at Manoa
The University of Hawaii at Mānoa is a public, co-educational university and is the flagship campus of the greater University of Hawaii system. The school is located in Mānoa, an urban neighborhood community of Honolulu CDP, City and County of Honolulu, Hawaii, approximately three miles east and...
http://www.politicalscience.hawaii.edu/Faculty/silva/nsilva.htm)
- Vicky Holt Takamine
- Haunani-Kay Trask
Haunani-Kay Trask is a Native Hawaiian academic, activist, documentarist and writer. Trask is a professor of Hawaiian Studies with the Kamakakuokalani Center for Hawaiian Studies at the University of Hawaii at Manoa and has represented Native Hawaiians in the United Nations and various other...
- Mililani Trask
Mililani Trask is a leader of the Hawaiian sovereignty movement and a political speaker and attorney. One of Trask's contributions to the Hawaiian sovereignty movement was her founding of Na Koa Ikaika o Ka Lāhui Hawaii, a native Hawaiian non-governmental organization.Outside of Hawaii, Trask has...
- Kaiulani Edens-Huff, a KKCR DJ, was suspended for an on-air altercation sparking accusation of racism and protests and an arrest of one of the protestors outside the station.
- Dallas Keialiihooneiaina Mossman Vogeler
Opponents of Hawaiian sovereignty
- Earl Arakaki
- H. William Burgess
H. William Burgess is an attorney who lives in Hawaii. He and his wife Sandra Puanani Burgess, who is of Chinese, Filipino and Hawaiian ancestry, are opponents of the Hawaiian sovereignty movement and of government programs that benefit Native Hawaiians preferentially...
- Patricia Carroll
- Robert M. Chapman
- Brian L. Clarke
- Kenneth R. Conklin
Kenneth R. Conklin is a retired schoolteacher who moved to Hawaii from Boston in 1992 and currently lives in Kāneʻohe. He is an opponent of the Hawaiian sovereignty movement, accusing those within it of preaching racism and apartheid, and has also sought to overturn existing laws and practices...
- Bruce Fein
Bruce Fein is a lawyer in the United States who specializes in constitutional and international law. Fein has written numerous articles on constitutional issues for The Washington Times, Slate.com, The New York Times, Legal Times, and is active on the issues of civil liberties...
- John Goemans (d. 2009)
- Patrick W Hanifin
- Rubellite Kawena Kinney Johnson (descendant of Kamehameha the Great, named a "Living Treasure Of Hawai'i" in 1983 by the Honpa Hongwanji Mission of Hawaii)
- Grant Jones
- Richard O. Rowland
- Thurston Twigg-Smith
-Biography:Twigg-Smith is a fifth generation Hawaii resident. He was born in 1921 in Honolulu, Hawaii. He is the son of William and Margaret Thurston Twigg-Smith , making him the great-great grandson of Asa and Lucy Goodale Thurston as well as Lorrin Andrews — who were pioneer missionaries to the...
- Malia Zimmerman
Recognition of the Movement
In an arbitration hearing before the
Permanent Court of ArbitrationThe Permanent Court of Arbitration , is an international organization based in The Hague in the Netherlands.It was established in 1899 as one of the acts of the first Hague Peace Conference, which makes it the oldest institution for international dispute resolution.The creation of the PCA is set...
in December 2000, the Hawaiian flag was raised at the same height at and along side of other countries. However, the court accepts arbitration from private entities and a hearing before the court does not equal international recognition. Hawaii has been recognized by other seccessionist movements, though, such as the
Alaskan Independence PartyThe Alaskan Independence Party is a political party in the U.S. state of Alaska that advocates an in-state referendum which includes the option of Alaska becoming an independent country...
and the
Second Vermont RepublicSecond Vermont Republic is a secessionist group within the U.S. state of Vermont which seeks to return to the formerly independent status of the Vermont Republic .-History:...
.
In popular culture
- Crimson Skies franchise
Crimson Skies is a media franchise and fictional universe created by Jordan Weisman and Dave McCoy. The series' intellectual property is currently owned by Microsoft Game Studios , although Weisman's new company, Smith & Tinker Inc., has announced that it has licensed the electronic entertainment...
: Is an alternate history franchise created by Jordan WeismanJordan Weisman is an American game designer, author, and serial entrepreneur who has founded four major game design companies, each in a different game genre and segment of the industry.-Biography:...
and Dave McCoy. In this alternate history the United States collapses in the 1930s. Subsequently without the support of the US government the Territorial GovernmentThe Territory of Hawaiii was a United States territory that existed from July 7, 1898, until August 21, 1959, when it was admitted to the Union as its fiftieth state, the State of Hawaii....
is ousted from power and the kingdom restored with Jonah KūhiōPrince Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaole Piikoi was a prince of the reigning House of Kalākaua when the Kingdom of Hawaii was overthrown by international businessmen in 1893...
becoming king.
- Days of Infamy series: Days of Infamy and End of the Beginning were two novels by Harry Turtledove
Harry Norman Turtledove is an American novelist, who has produced works in several genres including alternate history, historical fiction, fantasy and science fiction.- Life :...
based on an alternate history were the Attack on Pearl HarborThe attack on Pearl Harbor was an unannounced military strike conducted by the Imperial Japanese Navy against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii on the morning of December 7, 1941...
is followed by an invasion. The Kingdom of Hawaii is formed as a Japanese puppet stateThe term puppet state describes a nominal sovereignty controlled effectively by a foreign power. The term refers to a government controlled by the government of another country like a puppeteer controls the strings of a marionette...
with fictional King Stanley Owana Laanui and Queen Cynthia Laanui from the House of LaanuiThe House of Laanui or in the Hawaiian language is the collateral heirs to the throne of the now defunct Kingdom of Hawaii through the House of Kamehameha. Both houses are branches of the House of Keōua Nui. The term Royal House was only introduced into Hawaii in the late 18th century or early...
.
See also
- Legal status of Hawaii
The legal status of Hawaii is the standing of Hawaii as a political entity relative to the United States of America. Both locally, nationally and internationally, Hawaii is accepted as a state under the sovereignty of the United States of America...
- Tribal sovereignty
Tribal sovereignty in the United States refers to the inherent authority of indigenous tribes to govern themselves within the borders of the United States of America...
- Alaskan Independence Party
The Alaskan Independence Party is a political party in the U.S. state of Alaska that advocates an in-state referendum which includes the option of Alaska becoming an independent country...
- Republic of Texas (group)
The Republic of Texas is a group of individuals that claims that the annexation of Texas by the United States was illegal and that Texas remains an independent nation under occupation. The issue of the Legal status of Texas led the group to claim to reinstate a provisional government on December...
- Second Vermont Republic
Second Vermont Republic is a secessionist group within the U.S. state of Vermont which seeks to return to the formerly independent status of the Vermont Republic .-History:...
- Puerto Rican independence movement
The Puerto Rican Independence movement refers to initiatives throughout the history of Puerto Rico aimed at obtaining independence for the Island...
- History of Hawaii
The human history of Hawaii includes phases of early Polynesian settlement, British arrival, unification, Euro-American and Asian immigrators, the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy, a brief period of existing as a Republic., and admission to the United States as a territory and then a...
- KKCR
Further reading
- Andrade Jr., Ernest (1996). Unconquerable Rebel: Robert W. Wilcox and Hawaiian Politics, 1880-1903. University Press of Colorado. ISBN 0-87081-417-6
- Budnick, Rich (1992). Stolen Kingdom: An American Conspiracy. Honolulu: Aloha Press. ISBN 0-944081-02-9
- Churchill, Ward. Venne, Sharon H. (2004). Islands in Captivity: The International Tribunal on the Rights of Indigenous Hawaiians. Hawaiian language editor Lilikala Kame‘eleihiwa. Boston: South End Press. ISBN 0-89608-738-7
- Coffman, Tom (2003). Nation Within: The Story of America's Annexation of the Nation of Hawaii. Epicenter. ISBN 1-892122-00-6
- Coffman, Tom (2003). The Island Edge of America: A Political History of Hawai‘i. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-2625-6 / ISBN 0-8248-2662-0
- Conklin, Kenneth R. Hawaiian Apartheid: Racial Separatism and Ethnic Nationalism in the Aloha State. Print-on-demand from E-Book Time. ISBN 1-59824-461-2
- Daws, Gavan (1968). Shoal of Time: A History of the Hawaiian Islands. Macmillan, New York, 1968. Paperback edition, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1974.
- Dougherty, Michael (2000). To Steal a Kingdom. Island Style Press. ISBN 0-9633484-0-X
- Dudley, Michael K., and Agard, Keoni Kealoha (1993 reprint). A Call for Hawaiian Sovereignty. Nā Kāne O Ka Malo Press. ISBN 1-878751-09-3
- Kame‘eleihiwa, Lilikala (1992). Native Land and Foreign Desires. Bishop Museum Press. ISBN 0-930897-59-5
- Liliuokalani (1991 reprint). Hawaii's Story by Hawaii's Queen
Hawaii's Story by Hawaii's Queen is a book written by Queen Liliuokalani, the last monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaii. It was published in 1898, five years after the overthrow of the Kingdom...
. Mutual Publishing. ISBN 0-935180-85-0
- Osorio, Jonathan Kay Kamakawiwo‘ole (2002). Dismembering Lahui: A History of the Hawaiian Nation to 1887. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-2549-7
- Silva, Noenoe K. (2004). Aloha Betrayed: Native Hawaiian Resistance to American Colonialism. Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-3349-X
External links
Politics
Media
- Native Hawaiians battle in the courts and in Congress Honolulu Advertiser chronology of legislative and legal events relating to Hawaiian sovereignty since 1996
- Political tsunami hits Hawaii, by Rubellite Kawena Kinney Johnson
- Google News Coverage — Hawaiian Sovereignty
- Comprehensive blog of articles and documents on Hawaiian sovereignty
- Indigenous students silent no more, article from Honolulu Star-Bulletin
The Honolulu Star-Bulletin was a daily newspaper based in Honolulu, Hawaii, United States. At the time publication ceased on June 6, 2010, it was the second largest daily newspaper in the state of Hawaii...
on Native Hawaiian student activism at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa
- Sovereign Stories: 100 Years of Subjugation, article from Honolulu Weekly
Honolulu Weekly is an alternative weekly newspaper published in Honolulu, Hawaii. Founded by Laurie V. Carlson, it began publishing in the summer of 1991, ostensibly to fill gaps in investigative reporting left by the two main dailies, Honolulu Star-Bulletin and The Honolulu Advertiser, which were...
- Resolution on Kānaka Maoli Self-Determination and Reinscription of Ka Pae ʻĀina (Hawaiʻi) on the U.N. list of Non-Self-Governing Territories, In Motion Magazine
- Connection between Hawaiian health and sovereignty, paper by Dr. Kekuni Blaisdell presented August 24, 1991, at a panel on Puʻuhonua in Hawaiian Culture
- Nā Maka O Ka ʻĀina: award-winning documentary, film/video resources, and sovereignty-related A/V tools
- 2004 Presentation given by Umi Perkins at a Kamehameha Schools research conference
- Noho Hewa/ Documentary by Anne Keala Kelly
Opposition
- Hawaiian Sovereignty: Do the Facts Matter?, written by Thurston Twigg-Smith
-Biography:Twigg-Smith is a fifth generation Hawaii resident. He was born in 1921 in Honolulu, Hawaii. He is the son of William and Margaret Thurston Twigg-Smith , making him the great-great grandson of Asa and Lucy Goodale Thurston as well as Lorrin Andrews — who were pioneer missionaries to the...
- Documents and essays opposing sovereignty collected or written by Kenneth R. Conklin
Kenneth R. Conklin is a retired schoolteacher who moved to Hawaii from Boston in 1992 and currently lives in Kāneʻohe. He is an opponent of the Hawaiian sovereignty movement, accusing those within it of preaching racism and apartheid, and has also sought to overturn existing laws and practices...
, Ph.D.
- Grassroot Institute of Hawaii — co-founded by Richard O. Rowland and Hawaii Reporter publisher Malia Zimmerman
- Aloha for All — co-founded by H. William Burgess
H. William Burgess is an attorney who lives in Hawaii. He and his wife Sandra Puanani Burgess, who is of Chinese, Filipino and Hawaiian ancestry, are opponents of the Hawaiian sovereignty movement and of government programs that benefit Native Hawaiians preferentially...
and Thurston Twigg-Smith-Biography:Twigg-Smith is a fifth generation Hawaii resident. He was born in 1921 in Honolulu, Hawaii. He is the son of William and Margaret Thurston Twigg-Smith , making him the great-great grandson of Asa and Lucy Goodale Thurston as well as Lorrin Andrews — who were pioneer missionaries to the...
- A Race to Racism? Ascribe It to Tribe by Paul Sullivan in the Hawaii Reporter
Primary Sources