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The Hakka people (Hakka language: Hak-kâ; Mandarin Chinese: Kèjia) are a subgroup of the Han Chinese people based in the provinces of Guangdong, Jiangxi and Fujian in China and speaking the Hakka language. Their ancestors were often said to have arrived from what is today's central China centuries ago, but the origins of the Hakkas is still a contested issue. It is said that in a series of migrations, the Hakkas moved, settled in their present locations in southern China, and then migrated overseas to various countries throughout the world.
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Encyclopedia
The Hakka people (Hakka language: Hak-kâ; Mandarin Chinese: Kèjia) are a subgroup of the Han Chinese people based in the provinces of Guangdong, Jiangxi and Fujian in China and speaking the Hakka language. Their ancestors were often said to have arrived from what is today's central China centuries ago, but the origins of the Hakkas is still a contested issue. It is said that in a series of migrations, the Hakkas moved, settled in their present locations in southern China, and then migrated overseas to various countries throughout the world. The Hakkas have had a significant influence on the course of Chinese and overseas Chinese history: in particular, they have been a source of revolutionary, political and military leaders.
Migrations and group identification
The use of the term Hakka to describe this people is thought to be comparatively recent, dating to the Qing Dynasty (c. 17th century).
Their ancestors migrated southwards several times because of social unrest, upheaval, and the invasion of foreign conquerors, since the Jin Dynasty (265-420). Subsequent migrations occurred at the end of the Tang Dynasty when China fragmented, during the middle of the Song Dynasty which saw massive depopulation of the north and a flood of refugees southward, when the Jurchens captured the northern Song capital, at the fall of the Song to the Mongols in the Yuan Dynasty, and when the Ming Dynasty fell to the Manchu who formed the Qing Dynasty. Some of these migrants did not want to reveal where they were from as, under Chinese Laws, a crime of treason committed by one person is punishable by death upon the clan of that person up to nine generations. As the locals did not know where the migrants were from, they referred to them as 'guest families'.
During the reign of Emperor Qing Kangxi, the coastal regions were evacuated by imperial edict for almost a decade, due to the dangers posed by the remnants of the Ming court who had fled to what is now Taiwan. When the threat was eliminated, the Kangxi Emperor issued an edict to re-populate the coastal regions. To aid the move, each family was given monetary incentives to begin their new lives; newcomers were registered as "Guest Families" (??, kèhù).
The existing Cantonese speaking inhabitants (Punti or ??, "original land") of these areas were protective of their own more fertile lands, and the newcomers were pushed to the outer fringes of fertile plains, despite having migrated legitimately, or they settled in more mountainous regions to eke out a living. People were also able to purchase and sell land. Conflict between the two groups grew, and it is thought that "Hakka" was a term of derision used by the Punti aimed at the newcomers. Eventually, the tension between the two groups (the Hakkas had by then been settled for several hundred years, and could not be regarded as migrants in any sense) would lead to a series of 19th century skirmishes known as the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars in the Pearl River Delta. The problem was not that the two groups spoke a different tongue. In fact the 'locals' were composed of different people speaking several mutually unintelligible tongues, as typical of the Chinese country-side all over China, but they would regard each other as 'locals' or Puntis but not the Hakkas.
The term 'Punti' is not however synonymous with 'Cantonese', as a Cantonese in any other part of China, say for example Beijing, would not be able to call himself a 'Punti', as the puntis of the area are the Beijing or Hebei people.
The term 'Punti' is a Hakka word given to the Cantonese by the Hakka people. In Cantonese, the Hakka word 'Punti' is pronounced 'boon-day'.
Over time, the term "Hakka" was adopted by the newcomers to refer to themselves, not least due to the migratory tendencies inherent in their own culture. However, because the term also covers Hakka language-speakers, (in the same way that Punti covered several people speaking different tongues) and because the Han Chinese registered as Guest Families who migrated at the time may not have been Hakka language-speakers, and because of intermarriages among Hakka and Punti members (which showed that relation between the two were very good at times), identification as Hakka was largely a matter of self-selection. Through studies of both Cantonese and Hakka genealogies, some Hakka and Punti people with the same surnames claim the same ancestors, although their descendants strongly identify with one group to the exclusion of the other.
The Hakka ancestors are thus but one group amongst many who migrated southwards, becoming linguistically marked by differences yet unified through cultural assonances. Hakka people now are found in the southern Chinese provinces, chiefly in Guangdong, south-western Fujian, southern Jiangxi, southern Hunan, Guangxi, southern Guizhou, south-eastern Sichuan, and on Hainan and Taiwan islands, where there are television news broadcasts in the Hakka language. The Hakka dialects across these various provinces differ phonologically, but the Meixian (Meizhou) dialect of Hakka is considered the archetypal spoken form of the language. Migratory patterns have been established for some groups e.g. in Taiwan, northern and southern migrations from corresponding provinces in China.
Although different, and also not different, in some social customs and culture (e.g. linguistic differences) from the surrounding population, the Hakkas are not a separate ethnic group: they belong to the Han Chinese majority. Historical sources shown in census statistics relate only to the general population, irrespective of particular districts, provinces, or regions. These census counts were made during imperial times. They did not distinguish what language the population spoke. Therefore they do not directly document Hakka migrations. The study by Luo Xianglin, K'o-chia Yen-chiu Tao-Liu / An Introduction to the Study of the Hakkas (Hsin-Ning & Singapore, 1933) used genealogical sources of family clans from various southern counties. With population movement, it is reasonable to assume that there is mixing among both the Hakka newcomers and the indigenous people, and between the She and Hakka.
The Hakkas have a custom of buying the unwanted baby daughters of the Yue puntis in Guangdong, as Puntis favored sons over daughters. These Punti-moys then made brides for Hakka sons when they grew up. Hakka daughters did not enter Punti households in the same way, and there is no equivalent Hakka-mui term in the Punti vocabulary. The Yue punti genes thus entered Hakka populations.
Social and cultural influences
Due to their agrarian lifestyle, the Hakkas have a unique architecture based on defense and communal living (See Hakka architecture), and a hearty savory cuisine based on an equal balance between texturised meat and vegetables, and fresh vegetables (See Hakka cuisine).
When Hakkas expanded into areas with pre-existing populations, there was often little agricultural land left for them to farm. As a result, many Hakka men turned towards careers in the military or public service. Consequently, the Hakka culturally emphasized education.
Unlike the majority of other Han Chinese women, Hakka women did not practice footbinding.
Hakka people built Tulou buildings which has been inscribed in 2008 by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.
Martial arts
The Hakka community is also a source for a variety of martial arts. Those systems in general are referred to as Hakka Kuen (Hakka Fist). Southern Praying Mantis, Bak Mei and Dragon Kung Fu are examples of styles practised by the Hakkas.
Hakkas in mainland China
Hakkas in Guangdong
The Hakkas who live in Guangdong comprise about 60% of the total Hakka population. Worldwide, over 95% of the overseas-descended Hakkas came from this Guangdong region, usually from Huizhou: the Hakkas there live mostly in the eastern part of the province, particularly in the so-called Xing-Mei (Xingning-Meixian) area. Guangxi contains the second-largest Hakka community. Unlike their kin in Fujian, the Hakkas in the Xingning and Meixian area developed a non-fortress-like unique architectural style, most notably the weilongwu (Chinese: ???, wéilóngwu or Hakka: Wui Lung Wuk) and sijiaolou (Chinese: ???, sìjiaolóu or Hakka: Si Kok Liu).
Hakkas in Fujian
It was said that the early Hakka ancestors traveled from north China entered Fujian first, then through Tingjiang river they traveled to Guangdong and other parts of China and overseas. So Tingjiang river is also regarded as Hakka's Mother River.
The Hakkas who settled in the mountainous region of south-western Fujian province developed a unique form of architectural building known as tu lou, literally meaning earthen structures. The tu lou are round or square and were designed as a combined large fortress and multi-apartment building complex. The structures typically had only one entrance-way, with no windows at ground level. Each floor served a different function: the first floor containing a well and livestock, the second food storage and the third and higher floors contain living spaces. Tu-lou were built to withstand attack from bandits and marauders.
Hakkas in Sichuan
Emperor Kang Xi (reigned 1662AD to 1722AD), after a tour of the land,decided the province of Sichuan had to be repopulated after many wars. Seeing the Hakkas were living in poverty in the coastal regions in Guangdong province the Emperor encouraged the Hakkas in the south to emigrate to Sichuan province. He offered financial assistance to those who were willing to resettle in Sichuan; eight ounces of silver per man and four ounces per woman or child. Knowing the land in Sichuan was much fertile than than where they lived and in order to escape the hardship and miserable lives thousands upon thousands of Hakkas living in the regions between theprovinces of Guangdong and Fujian responded and accepted the offer by Emperor Kang Xi. This migration is referred as the fourth migration of the Hakkas. Nowadays, millions of Sichuanese could trace their roots back to the province of Guangdong, especially the district of Meixian. Deng Xiaoping, the former paramount leader of China, was born into a Hakka family in Guang An county in Sichuan province. Deng's ancestors could be traced back to Meixian. Zhu De, the famous commander-in-chief of the Chinese Red Army since its inception in Jing Gang Shan in 1927, was born in Yi Long county in Sichuan province. His father, a Hakka, was born in Guangdong province. Zhu De's grandfather took his family and emigrated to Sichuan province. He was one of the thirteen children of the Zhu family.
(see Hakka architecture)
Hakkas in Hong Kong
During the late Ming and Qing Dynasties, Hong Kong was in the imperial district of Xin-An County. The 1819 gazetteer lists 570 Punti and 270 Hakka contemporary settlements in the whole district. . However, the area covered by Xin-An county is greater than what was to become the British imperial enclave of Hong Kong by 1899. Although there had been settlers originating from the mainland proper even before the Tang Dynasty, historical records of those people are non-extant, only evidence of settlement from archaeological sources can be found. The New Territories lowland areas had been settled originally by several clan lineages in Kam Tin, Sheung Shui, FanLing, Yuen Long and Taipo, and hence termed the Punti before the arrival of the Hakka, and fishing families of the Tanka and Hoklo groups to the area. Since the prime farming land had already been farmed, the Hakka land dwellers settled in the less accessible and more hilly areas. Hakka settlements can be found widely distributed around the Punti areas, but in smaller communities. Many are found on coastal areas in inlets and bays surrounded by hills.
Hakka dialect speaking communities are thought to have arrived in the Hong Kong area after the rescinding of the coastal evacuation order in 1688., such as the Hakka speaking Lee clan lineage of Wo Hang, one of whose ancestors is recorded as arriving in the area in 1688.
As the strong Punti lineages dominated most of the north western New Territories, Hakka communities began to organise local alliances of lineage communties such as the Sha Tau Kok Alliance of Ten or Shap Yeuk as Patrick Hase writes.. Hakka villages from Wo Hang to the west and YanTian to the east of Sha Tau Kok came to use it as a local market town and it became the center of Hakka dominance. Further, the Shap Yeuk's land reclamation project transforming marshland to arable farmland with the creation of dykes and levvies to prevent storm flooding during the early nineteenth century shows an example of how local cooperation and the growing affluence of the landed lineages in the Alliance of Ten provided the strong cultural, socioeconomic Hakka influence on the area.
Farming and cultivation has been the traditional occupations of Hakka families from imperial times up until the 1970s. Farming was mostly done by Hakka women while their menfolk sought labouring jobs in the towns and cities. Many men entered indentured labour abroad as was common from the end of the 19th century to Second World War. Post war, males took the opportunity to seek work in Britain and other countries later to send for their families to join them once they sent enough money back to cover travel costs.
As post war education became available to all children in Hong Kong, a new educated class of Hakka became more mobile in their careers. Many moved to the government planned new towns which sprung up from the 1960s. The rural Hakka population began to decline as people moved abroad, and away to work in the urban areas. By the end of the 1970's, agriculture was firmly in the decline in Hakka villages. Today, there are still Hakka villages around Hong Kong, but being remote, many of their inhabitants have moved to the post war new towns like Sheung Shui, TaiPo, Shatin and further afield.
Cuisine
The Hakka people have a marked cuisine and style of Chinese cooking which is little known outside the Hakka home. Hakka cuisine concentrates on the texture of food - the hallmark of Hakka cuisine. Whereas preserved meats feature in Hakka delicacy, stewed, braised, roast meats, 'texturized' contributions to the Hakka palate have a central place in their repertoire. In fact the raw materials for Hakka food are no different from raw materials for any other type of regional Chinese cuisine, what you cook depends on what is available in the market. Hakka cuisine may be described as outwardly simple but tasty. The skill in Hakka cuisine lies in the ability to cook meat thoroughly without hardening it, and to naturally bring out the proteinous flavour (umami taste) of meat. Most of the Chinese restaurants in the United Kingdom are owned by Hakkas.
The Hakkas who settled in the harbour and port areas of Hong Kong placed great emphasis on seafood cuisine. Hakka cuisine in Hong Kong is less dominated by expensive meats, instead emphasis is placed on an abundance of vegetables. Pragmatic and simple, Hakka cuisine is garnished lightly with sparse or little flavouring. Modern Hakka cooking in Hong Kong favours offal, an example being Deep-Fried Intestines (??? or Tza Tai Chong). Others include tofu with preservatives, along with their signature dish Salt Baked Chicken (??? or Yam Guk Gai). Another specialty is the Poon Choy. While it may be difficult to prove these were the actual diets of the old Hakka community, it is presently a commonly accepted view. The above dishes and their variations are in fact found and consumed throughout China including Guangdong, and are not particularly unique or confined to the Hakka Chinese population. Offal in China was/is also more expensive than meat, as was/is fatty pork more expensive than lean pork. Offal was/is a premier food in China. Other dishes consumed by Hakkas and many Chinese include chicken's feet and duck's feet.
Modern society
It should be noted that the Hakka's modern societal structure and experience includes far more diverse and complex global elements than the Hong Kong landscape, where only a small fraction of the Hakka reside or have transitioned through.
Preservation
In the latter half of the 20th century, a stronger emphasis has been placed on Hakka preservation through folk art and customs. A Hakka language dictionary has also been completed auspiciously on 1997 by Dr CF Lau [ISBN Reference: ISBN 962-201-750-9], a devoted contributor to the preservation of the Hakka language in Hong Kong.
Hakkas worldwide
The Hakkas have emigrated to many regions worldwide, notably India, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand and Myanmar.
Hakka people also emigrated to Australia, Brunei, Canada, the United States, and to many countries in Europe, including Great Britain, France, Spain, Germany, Austria, Belgium, and the Netherlands. Hakka people also are found in South Africa and Mauritius, on the islands of the Caribbean (Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago, and in Central and South America, particularly in Panama and Brazil. Most expatriate Hakka in Great Britain have ties to Hong Kong; many emigrated when Hong Kong still was a British colony during a period coinciding with the Cultural Revolution of China and economic depression in Hong Kong. There was once a sizable Hakka community in Calcutta, but most have migrated to Canada, the United States, Australia, Taiwan or Austria. Today there are about 90-100 million Hakka speakers around the world. In Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesian, Hakka people are sometimes known as Khek, the Hokkien (Minnan) pronunciation of Ke (Hak).
Hakkas in Indonesia
Migration of Hakka people to Indonesia happened in several waves. The first wave landed in Bangka and Belitung islands as tin miners in the 18th century. The second group of colonies were established along the Kapuas River in Kalimantan in the 19th century. In the early 20th Century new arrivals from Meixian joined their compatriots as traders and labourers in major cities such as Jakarta and Pontianak.
Bangka Belitung
Hakkas also live in the Indonesia's biggest tin producer islands of Bangka Belitung province. They were the second majority ethnic group after Malay at about 330,000. Hakka population in the province is also the second largest in Indonesia after West Kalimantan's and one of the highest percentages of Chinese living in Indonesia as well.
The first ancestors of Hakkas in Bangka and Belitung reached the islands in 1700s from Guangdong. Many of them worked as tin mining labourers. Since then, they have stayed on the island along with the native Malay people. The condition is much different with Chinese and natives in other region as they always came into clashes before year of 1999 when Indonesian Chinese finally got their freedom again since 1960s. But here they lived together peacefully and still practiced their customs and cultural festival such as celebrating Chinese New Year and Qingming while in other regions, they were strictly banned by government before 1999. The majority religions of Chinese Babel are Confucianism or Buddhism, and significant number of Christian. A little number of them confessed Islam as some of them married Malays.
Hakkas on the island of Bangka have an unusual accent, said to be heavily influenced by the Malay, especially in younger generations. The younger generations speak much more Malay than the older Hakka generation. As Chinese languages employ tones to distinguish different words, where differences in tone can change a word's meaning entirely, The Hakka dialect spoken by the islanders has such a different tonal system that their spoken language is hardly intelligible to Hakkas from other regions. But they still refer to themselves as Thong ngin as well as younger people and spoke Thong boi. Hakka ngin words are unpopular as well as Hakkafa. The Hakka spoken in the Muntok area in Bangka is considered to be standard. Many Hakkas in the province have moved outside the Islands especially to Jakarta. There are more than 30,000 - 50,000 Chinese Babel in Jakarta who speak both Malay and Thong boi.
There were also a big Chinese population from Bangka and Belitung who lived abroad such as in China and Hongkong. They proud to be Chinese Bangka Belitung, so once or twice a year they always returned home to celebrate Chinese new year or pay their respects in Qingming.
Pontianak
Hakka people in Pontianak live alongside with teochew speaking Chinese. Whilst the teochews are dominant in the centre of Pontianak, the hakkas are more dominant in small towns along the Kapuas River in the regencies of Sanggau, Sekadau and Sintang. Their hakka dialect is originally of Mei Xien (Hakka: MoiYan) standard but heavily influenced by the teochews dialect and vocabularies from the local Malay and Dayak tribes.
The Hakkas in this region are descendants of gold prospectors who migrated from China in the late 19th century.
Singkawang
The hakkas in Singkawang and the surrounding regencies of Sambas, Bengkayang, Ketapang and Landak speaks a different standard of hakka dialect to the hakkas along the Kapuas River. Their place of origin in China is tai phu (Dabu ??), a district in Mei Xien. also Fuk Luk Hoi which means winds of the six seas.
Jakarta
Hakka can still be heard in some commercial districts in Jakarta. Their numbers increases with internal migrations from the three regions mentioned above.
Hakkas in East Timor
There was a relatively large and vibrant Hakka community in East Timor before the Indonesian invasion in 1975. According to the local Chinese Timorese association's estimation, the Hakka population in 1975 was estimated to be around 25,000 (including a small minority of other Chinese ethnicity from Macau). During the invasion, many Hakkas were killed. According to a book source, it was estimated that about 700 Hakkas were killed on the first week of invasion in Dili alone. No clear numbers had been recorded since many Hakkas evacuated and escaped to Australia. Recent re-establishment of Hakka association registered approximately about 2,400 Hakkas remained (400 families, including half Timorese families) in East Timor.
Now the Hakka diaspora can be found in Darwin and spread-out in major cities such as Brisbane, Sydney and Melbourne of Australia, Portugal, Macau and small numbers in other parts of the world. They often are highly-educated, and many continue their education in Taiwan or China, with majority of younger generation study in Australia. The Australian government took some years to assess their claims to political asylum in order to establish their credentials as genuine refugees and not illegal immigrants, partially related to political situation of East Timor during that time. As no Asian country was willing to accept them as residents, or grant political asylum to displaced Hakka and other Timorese, they were forced to live as stateless persons for a time. Despite this condition, many Hakkas had become successful and established food chains, shops, supermarkets and importers in Australia. Since the independence of East Timor in 2002, some Hakka families had returned and invest in businesses in the newborn nation.
Hakkas in Malaysia
Hakkas form the second largest subgroup of the ethnic Chinese population of Malaysia. During his time, Chung Keng Quee, Capitan China of Perak and Penang was founder of Taiping, leader of the Hai San, a millionaire philanthropist, an innovator in the mining of tin and was respected by both Chinese and European communities in the early colonial settlement. A well known Hakka man was Yap Ah Loy, a Kapitan in Kuala Lumpur from 1868 to 1885, where he brought significant economic contributions, founded Kuala Lumpur and also was an influential figure among the ethnic Chinese.
In East Malaysia, they form a significant part of the Bornean state of Sabah where most of the ethnic Chinese are of Hakka descent. Hakka is the lingua franca among the Chinese in Sabah.
Hakkas in Jamaica
Most Chinese Jamaicans are Hakka and they have a long history in Jamaica. Between 1845 and 1884, nearly 5000 Hakka arrived in Jamaica on 3 major voyages. Most came to Jamaica under contract as indentured servants. Under the terms of the contract, free return passage was available for any Hakka who wanted to return to China. Most of them did. In 1854, 205 Chinese workers who had been working on the Panama canal arrived in Jamaica. They had demanded re-settlement due to the threat of Yellow Fever in Panama. Many were ill upon arrival in Jamaica and were immediately hospitalized in Kingston. Less than 50 or these immigrants survived. The rest died of Yellow Fever.
Chin Pa-kung (a.ka. Jackson Chin), opened a wholesale business in Kingston where the Desnoes and Geddes building now stands. Chang Si-Pah and Lyn Sam opened groceries nearby. These gentleman provided guidance for other Chinese immigrants to Jamaica.
During the 1960s-1970s, there was substantial migration of Hakka Jamaican Chinese to the USA and Canada.
Hakkas in Mauritius
The vast majority of Mauritian Chinese are Hakkas. Most of the Mauritian Hakkas emigrated to Mauritius in the mid 1940's came from the Guangdong province, especially from the Meizhou or Meixian region.
As of 2008, the total population of Sino-Mauritian, consisting of Hakka and Cantonese, is around 35,000.
Hakkas in Taiwan
In Taiwan, Hakka people comprise about 15-20% of the population and are descended largely from Guangdong: they form the second largest ethnic group on the island. Many Hakka moved to lands high up in the hills or remote mountains to escape political persecution. Many of the Hakka people continue to live in these hilly locations of Taiwan.
Taiwan's Hakka are concentrated in Hsinchu City and Hsinchu County, Miaoli County, and around Chungli in Taoyuan County, and Meinong in Kaohsiung County, and in Pingtung County, with smaller presences in Hualian and Taitung County. In recent decades many Hakka have moved to the largest metropolitan areas, including Taipei, Taichung, and Kaohsiung.
Many people in Taiwan are of mixed Hoklo, Hakka, and Formosan aboriginal heritage. Approximately half of the population of Hakka in Taiwan also speak Taiwanese, and it is highly likely that many Taiwanese-speaking households were descendants of Hakka families in Taiwan who lost their language a few generations back.
Hakkas in Thailand
There are no records for us to study when Hakka Descendants pioneered into Thailand. In 1901, Mr. Yu Cipeng, a Hakka member of The League Society of China came to visit Thailand and found that establishment of many varied organizations among the Hakka was not good for unity. So, he tried to bring the two parties together and persuaded them to dissolve the clubs in order to set up a new united one. In 1909 "The Hakka Society of Siam" was established and Chao Phraya Yommarat, Interior Minister then was invited to preside over the opening ceremony for the society nameplate located in front of the Chinese shrine "Lee Tee Biao". Mr. Yang Liqing was the President of the first period.
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World Hakka Congress
| No | Year | City | Country |
|---|
| 1 | 1971 | Hong Kong | Hong Kong | | 2 | 1973 | Taipei | Taiwan | | 3 | 1976 | Taipei | Taiwan | | 4 | 1978 | San Francisco | USA | | 5 | 1980 | Tokyo | Japan | | 6 | 1982 | Bangkok | Thailand | | 7 | 1984 | Taipei | Taiwan | | 8 | 1986 | Mauritius | Mauritius | | 9 | 1988 | San Francisco | USA | | 10 | 1990 | Kota Kinabalu, Sabah | Malaysia | | 11 | 1992 | Kaoshiung | Taiwan | | 12 | 1994 | Meixian, Guangdong | China | | 13 | 1996 | Singapore | Singapore | | 14 | 1998 | Miaoli | Taiwan | | 15 | 1999 | Kuala Lumpur | Malaysia | | 16 | 2000 | Longyan, Fujian | China | | 17 | 2001 | Jakarta | Indonesia | | 18 | 2003 | Zhengzhou, Henan | China | | 19 | 2004 | Ganzhou, Jiangxi | China | | 20 | 2005 | Chengdu, Sichuan | China | | 21 | 2006 | Taipei | Taiwan | | 22 | 2008 | Xi'an, Shaanxi | China | | 23 | 2010 | Heyuan, Guangdong | China | | 24 | 2011 | Beihai, Guangxi | China | |
Prominent Hakkas
The Hakkas have had a significant influence, disproportionate to their smaller total numbers, on the course of Chinese and overseas Chinese history, particularly as a source of revolutionary, political and military leaders.
Hakkas were active during the Taiping Rebellion [Jonathan D. Spence, "God's Chinese Son", 1997 - see references], the largest uprising in the modern history of China. The uprising, also known as Jintian Uprising, originated at the Hakka village of Jintian in Guiping, Guangxi. It was led by the failed Qing scholar, Hong Xiuquan, who was influenced by Protestant missionaries. Hong's charisma tapped into a consciousness of national dissent which identified with his personal interpretations of the Christian message. His following, who were initially Hakka peasants from Guangxi, grew across the southern provinces. The hugely disciplined Taiping army, which included women in their ranks, captured stoutly-defended towns and cities from the Qing defenders. In 1851, less than a year after the uprising, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom ???? was established. It had, at one stage, occupied one-third of China, and almost toppled the Qing Dynasty. The kingdom lasted for eleven years.
Hakkas continue to play prominent roles during the revolutionary and republican years of Kuomintang, as well as during the Chinese Civil War between Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China, to which many of the leaders on both sides are Hakkas.
Lee Kuan Yew were among four Chinese named as "the 20th Century's 20 Most Influential Asians" by Time magazine.
Hakkas' influence is also evident in Guangdong, China, where the "Hakka Gang" "???" has consistently dominated the provincial government. Presently, the governor, Huang Huahua, and four deputy governors are Hakkas.
Revolutionaries and Politicians
- China
- Heavenly Kingdom
- Hong Xiuquan ??? (1812-1864; Huaxian, Guangdong), Heavenly King; Leader, Taiping Rebellion
- Feng Yunshan ???/??? (1815-1852; Huaxian, Guangdong), South King
- Yang Xiuqing ???/??? (1821-1856; Guiping, Guangxi, East King
- Shi Dakai ???/??? (1831-1863; Guiping, Guangxi), Wing King
- Li Xiucheng ??? (1823-1864; Tengxian, Guangxi), Loyal King
- Chen Yucheng ???/??? (1837-1862; Tengxian, Guangxi), Heroic King
- Hong Rengan ??? (1822-1864; Huaxian, Guangdong), Premier and Shield King; First person in China to advocate Western-styled of government and modernization
- Qing Dynasty
- Feng Zicai ???/??? (1818-1903; Bobai, Guangxi), Commanding general, Sino-French War (the only war that Qing Dynasty had won against foreign countries), 1884-1885
- Liu Yongfu ???/??? (1837-1917; Bobai, Guangxi), Commander, Black Flag Army; President, Republic of Formosa, 1895
- Qiu Fengjia ??? (1864-1912; Jiaoling, Guangdong; born in Taiwan), Leader, Taiwanese resistance forces, Japanese invasion of Taiwan, 1895; Feng Chia University in Taichung is named in honor of him
- Republic of China
- Sun Yatsen ???/??? (1886-1925; Zhongshan, Guangdong), Founding father of modern China (Hakka by marriage)
- Charlie Soong ???/??? (1863-1918; Wenchang, Hainan), Financier and staunch supporter in the early days of Kuomintang; Father of the Soong Sisters, who along with their husbands, were the most influential figures of China in the early 20th century
- Soong Ai-ling ???/??? (1890-1973; Wenchang, Hainan; born in Shanghai), Eldest of the Soong Sisters; Wife of H H Kung
- Soong Ching-ling ???/??? (1893-1981; Wenchang, Hainan; born in Kunshan, Jiangsu), Second of the Soong Sisters; Wife of Sun Yat-sen; Honorary President of the People's Republic of China, 1981
- Soong May-ling ???/??? (1898-2003; Wenchang, Hainan), Youngest of the Soong Sisters; Wife of Chiang Kai-shek
- T. V. Soong ??? (1894-1971; Wenchang, Hainan; born in Shanghai), Premier of the Republic of China, 1930, 1945-1947
- Liao Zhongkai ??? (1877-1925; Huiyang, Guangdong; born in USA), Leader and financier, Kuomintang; Was one of the three most powerful figures in Kuomintang when Sun Yatsen passed away
- Sun Ke ??/?? (1891–1973; Zhongshan, Guangdong), Premier of the Republic of China, 1931-1932, 1948-1949
- Chen Jitang ???/??? (1890-1954; Fangcheng, Guangxi), General, Nationalist China
- Xue Yue ?? *** Zhang Fakui ???/??? (1896-1980; Shixing, Guangdong), Commander-in-Chief during Second Sino-Japanese war
- Xie Jinyuan ???/??? (1905-1941; Jiaoling, Guangdong), Commander, Defence of Sihang Warehouse; Heroism of the defenders of the warehouse, known as the Eight Hundred Heroes ????, was made into a movie of the same name
- People's Republic of China
- Deng Xiaoping ???/???(1904-1997; Guang An, Sichuan), a prominent Chinese revolutionary, politician, pragmatist and reformer, as well as the late leader of the Communist Party of China (CPC). Deng never held office as the head of state or the head of government, but served as the de facto leader of the People's Republic of China from 1978 to the early 1990s.
- Marshal Ye Jianying ???/??? (1897-1986; Meixian, Guangdong), Leader and general; Chairman, National People's Congress, 1978-1983; President, People's Republic of China, 1978-1983; Governor of Guangdong, 1949-1953
- Hu Yaobang ??? (1915-89; Linyang, Hunan), General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, 1980-1987
- Zeng Qinghong ???/??? (1939-; Ji'an, Jiangxi), Vice-President, People's Republic of China, 2003-2008; Was second in ranking after Hu Jintao in the fourth generation leadership
- Liao Chengzhi ??? (1908-1983; Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Japan), Well-respected politican; Passed away a week before he was expected to be elected Vice-President, People's Republic of China
- Ye Ting ??/?? (1896-1946; Huiyang, Guangdong), Commander-In-Chief, New Fourth Army, one of the two main Chinese communist forces, Second Sino-Japanese War
- Yang Chengwu ???/??? (1914-2004; Changting, Fujian), General; Vice-Chairman, Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, 1983-1988
- Ye Xuanping ???/??? (1924-; Meixian, Guangdong), Vice-Chairman, Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, 1991-2003; Governor of Guangdong, 1985-1991
- Xie Fei ??/?? (1932-1999; Lufeng, Guangdong), Vice-chairman, National People's Congress, 1998-1999
- Huang Huahua ???/??? (1946-; Xingning, Guangdong), Present governor of Guangdong, 2003-
- Taiwan
- Lee Teng-hui ??? (1923-; Yongding, Fujian; born in Taiwan), President of the Republic of China, 1988-2000; First freely-elected president in Chinese history
- Annette Lu ???/??? (1944-; Nanjing, Fujian; born in Taiwan), Vice-President, Republic of China, 2000-2008
- Wu Po-hsiung ???/??? (1939-; Yongding, Fujian; born in Taiwan), Chairman, Kuomintang, 2007-; Mayor, Taipei, 1988-1990
- Hsu Hsin-liang ???/??? (1941-; Raoping, Guangdong; born in Taiwan), Co-founder and chairman, Democratic Progressive Party, 1991-1994, 1996-1998
- Tsai Ing-wen ??? (1956-; born in Taiwan), Present and first female Chairperson, Democratic Progressive Party, 2008-; Vice-premier, Republic of China, 2006-2007
- Yeh Chu-lan ???/??? (1949-; born in Taiwan), Vice-premier, Republic of China, 2004-2005; Acting mayor, Kaohsiung, 2005-2006
- Chen Shui-bian ???/??? (1950-; northern parts of Zhao'an - disputed; born in Taiwan), President of the Republic of China, 2000-2008
- Lee Ying-yuan ???/??? (1953; Zhao'an, Fujian; born in Taiwan), Secretary-General, Executive Yuan, 2005; Secretary-General, Democratic Progressive Party, 2008; Ran and lost to Ma Ying-jeou, Taipei Mayor Elections, 2002
- Hong Kong
- Martin Lee ???/??? (1938-; Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Founding chairman, Democratic Party, 1994-2002; Leading figure of the pro-democracy movement in Hong Kong
- Lee Wing Tat ???/??? (1955-; Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Chairman, Democratic Party, 2004-2006
- Tam Yiu Chung ???/??? (1949-; Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Chairman, Democratic Alliance for Betterment of Hong Kong, the largest pro-Beijing political party in Hong Kong, 2007-
- Singapore
- Lee Kuan Yew ??? (1923-; Dabu, Guangdong; born in Singapore), Founding father of modern Singapore; Prime Minister of Singapore, his mother Chua, is a Min Nan Nyonya 1959-1990
- Lee Hsien Loong ???/??? (1952-; Dabu, Guangdong; born in Singapore), Present Prime Minister of Singapore, his mother Kwa have ancestry from Min Nan Tong'an 2004-
- Yong Nyuk Lin ???/??? (1918-, born in Malaysia), Cabinet Minister, 1959-1976
- Hon Sui Sen ???/??? (1916-83; Jiexi, Guangdong, born in Malaysia), Finance Minister, 1970-1983
- Howe Yoon Chong ??? (1923-2007; Meixian, Guangdong; born in China), Cabinet Minister, 1979-1984
- Dr Hu Tsu Tau Richard ???/??? (1926-; Yongding, Fujian; born in Singapore), Finance Minister, 1985-2001
- Elizabeth Choy (Yong Su Moi) ????/???? (1910-2006; born in Malaysia), War heroine; First and only woman to be on the Legislative Council of Singapore, 1951
- Malaysia
- Yap Ah Loy ???/??? (1837-1885; Huiyang, Guangdong; born in China), Founder of Kuala Lumpur
- Chung Keng Quee ???/??? (1827-1901; Zengcheng, Guangdong; born in China), Founder of Taiping, Perak; Kapitan China, Penang and Perak
- Yap Kwan Seng ???/??? (1846-1902; Chixi, Guangdong; born in China), Last Kapitan China, Kuala Lumpur, 1989-1902; A major road, Jalan Yap Kwan Seng, in Kuala Lumpur was named after him
- Chung Thye Phin ???/??? (1879-1935; Zengcheng, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), Last Kapitan China, Perak
- Datuk Seri Lau Pak Khuan ???/??? (1894-1971; Zengcheng, Guangdong; born in China), Founding member of Malaysian Chinese Association; First Chinese to be conferred the "Datuk Seri" title by Malaysia Sultan; Led the unsuccessful bid for Chinese equal citizenship rights and official language status during drafting of Malaysia Constitution
- Tan Sri Wong Pow Nee ???, (1911-2002; born in Malaysia), Chief Minister of Penang, 1957-1969
- Datuk Peter Lo Sui Yin ???/??? (Longchuan, Guangdong), Chief Minister of Sabah, 1965-67
- Datuk Yong Teck Lee ???/??? (1958-; Longchuan, Guangdong), Chief Minister of Sabah, 1996-1998
- Tan Sri Chong Kah Kiat ??? (1948-), Chief Minister of Sabah, 2001-2003
- Tan Sri Datuk Amar Stephen Yong Kuet Tze ???/??? (1921-2001; Dabu, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), former Minister of Science, Technology & Environment
- Peter Chin Fah Kui ???/??? (1945-; Bao'an, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), Plantation Industries and Commodities Minister, Malaysia, 2004-
- Liow Tiong Lai ??? (Dabu, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), Health Minister, Malaysia, 2008-
- Teresa Kok ??? (1964-; Huizhou, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), Member of Parliament, 1999-; Won by the highest majority among 200 seats contested in the 2008 General Elections
- Thailand
- Thaksin Shinawatra ???/??? (1949-; Fengshun, Guangdong; born in Thailand), founder Thai Rak Thai political party; only Prime Minister of Thailand to finish a term of office and be reelected, 2001-2006; exiled, 2008.
- Abhisit Vejjajiva (1964-; born in United Kingdom), Leader, Democrat Party (Thailand), 2005- ; former Opposition Leader; elected Prime Minister of Thailand, 2008.
- Sudarat Keyuraphan , Founder, Wagamama restaurant chain, Hakkasan and Yauatcha, United Kingdom
- Khun Bantoon Lamsam ??? (Meixian, Guangdong), Founder, Kasikorn Bank (Thai Farmers Bank), Thailand
- Robert Wan ??? (Guangdong; born in Tahiti, French Polynesia), Pearl producer (See Robert Wan Pearl Museum)
- Tan Sri Jeffrey Cheah ???/??? (Dongguan, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), Founder and chairman of The Sunway Group of Companies, Malaysia
- Michael Lee-Chin (born in Jamaica), Chairman and CEO, AIC Limited, one of Canada's largest mutual fund companies
- Dave Chong Min Kuin (Borned 1956), Founder and Former Managing Director of NEC Infrontia Asia Pacific
Literary Figures, Artists, Academics and Scientists
- Huang Zunxian ???/??? (1848-1905; Meixian, Guangdong), Poet, writer and diplomat
- Yong Mun Sen (Yong Yen Lang) ???/??? (1896-1962; Dabu, Guangdong; born in Malaysia); Pioneer artist and the father of Malaysian painting
- Lo Hsiang-lin ???/??? (1906-1978, Xingning, Guangdong), Scholar on Hakka culture and language
- Teng Yu-hsien ???/??? (1906-1944; born in Taiwan), Taiwanese composer
- Li Guohao ???/??? (1913-2005; Meixian, Guangdong), One of the top bridge experts in the world
- Chung Li-ho ???/??? (1915-1960; born in Taiwan), Famous Taiwanese novelist
- Han Suyin ???/??? (1917-; Xinyang, Henan), Author of books on modern China
- Lin Haiyin ??? (1918-2001; Jiaoling, Guangdong; born in Japan), Taiwanese novelist whose memoirs, ???? (My Memories of Old Beijing), was made into a movie of the same name
- Shing-Tung Yau ??? (1949-; Jiaoling, Guangdong), Chinese-American mathematician
Actors, Musicians and Entertainers
- Hong Kong
- Chor Yuen ?? (1934-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in China), Hong Kong film director
- Leslie Cheung ???/??? (1956-2003; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Famous singer/actor
- Chow Yun-Fat ???/??? (1955-; Bao'an, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), One of the most famous actors in Asia; Lead actor in several Hollywood movies
- Leon Lai ?? (1966-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in China), Singer/actor; One of the "Four Great Heavenly Kings" of Chinese pop music
- Alex Man ???/??? (1957-; Bao'an, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Actor; Best Actor, Golden Horse Awards, 1988
- Cherie Chung ???/??? (1960-; Boluo, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Actress
- Jordan Chan ???/??? (1967-, Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Actor/singer
- Eric Tsang ???/??? (1953-; Wuhua, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Actor/comedian
- Frances Yip ???/??? (1947-; Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Singer
- Deanie Ip ???/??? (1947-; Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Singer/actress
- Teresa Cheung Tak Lan ???/??? (Dabu, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Popular Hong Kong singer in the 1970s-1980s
- Chan Wai-Man ???/??? (1946-; born in Hong Kong); Actor who is well-known for triad chief roles
- Shing Fui-On ??? (1955-; Xingning, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Actor who is well-known for bad guy roles
- Angeline Leung ??? (Meixian, Guangdong), Winner, Miss Hong Kong pageant, 1982
- Shallin Tse ??/?? (1963-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in China), Winner, Miss Hong Kong pageant, 1985
- Shirley Yeung ???/??? (1978-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Winner, Miss Hong Kong pageant, 2001
- Fiona Yuen ??? (1976-; born in Germany), Second runner-up, Miss Hong Kong pageant, 1996
- Kate Tsui ??? (1979-; Huizhou, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Winner, Miss Hong Kong pageant, 2004
- Shermon Tang ???/??? (1983-; born in Hong Kong), Miss Photogenic, Miss Hong Kong pageant, 2005
- Taiwan
- Hou Hsiao-Hsien ???/??? (1947-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in China), Award-winning film director and a leading figure of Taiwan's New Wave cinema movement
- Edward Yang ???/??? (1947-2007; Meixian, Guangdong; born in China), Film director; Best Director, Cannes Film Festival, 2000
- Luo Dayou ???/??? (1954-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Taiwan), Influential singer-songwriter who revolutionized Chinese pop and rock music in the 1980s
- Hebe Tien ??? (1983-; born in Taiwan), Members of S.H.E, female pop group
- Chen Qiao En ???/??? (1979-; born in Taiwan), Leading actress of Taiwan idol dramas
- Shino Lin ???/??? (born in Taiwan), Singer
- Julia Peng ??? (1972-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Taiwan), Singer
- Alec Su ???/??? (1973-, born in Taiwan), Actor/singer
- Bowie Tsang ???/??? (1973-; Wuhua, Guangdong), Compere/singer/actress
- Chen Chien-Chou ???/??? (Blackie ??) (1977-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Taiwan), Compere; Former national basketballer, Chinese Taipei national basketball team
- China
- Huang Wanqiu ??? (1943-; Meixian, Guangdong), Lead actress of the classic movie, "Third Sister Liu" ???
- Li Ai ?? (Meixian, Guangdong), Supermodel and one of China's most recognizable media personalities; Host, "China's Next Top Model"
- Singapore
- Fann Wong ??? (1971-; born in Singapore), Actress/singer/model
- Adrian Pang ???/??? (1966-; born in Malaysia), Actor; Best Actor for Comedy Performance, Asian Television Awards, 2002
- Xie Shaoguang ???/??? (1960-; born in Singapore), Actor; Best Actor, Asian Television Awards, 1998; Five-time winner of Singapore's best television actor award
- Felicia Chin ???/??? (1984-; born in Singapore), Actress; Female winner, Star Search, 2003; Member of the Singapore national softball team at the age of 15
- Wong Lilin ???/??? (born in Singapore), Actress
- Michelle Chong ???/??? (1977-; born in Singapore), Actress/compere
- Maggie Teng ???/??? (born in Singapore), Singer; First Singaporean to break into Taiwan pop music industry in the 1980s
- Lee Wei Song ???/??? (1966-; born in Singapore) and Lee Shih Shiong ??? (1966-; born in Singapore), Well-known songwriters
- Ho Yeow Sun ??? (born in Singapore), Singer; First and only Asian singer to top the US Billboard Dance Chart and the UK MusicWeek Chart; Performed the Olympic Hymn, which was sung in Mandarin for the first time, accompanied by a choir of Overseas Chinese from 16 different nationalities for 2008 Beijing Olympics
- ???/???, Classical musician and harmonica virtuso
- Malaysia
- Eric Moo ???/??? (1963-; born in Malaysia), Award winning singer/composer/producer
- Michael Wong ??? (1970-; born in Malaysia) and Victor Wong ??? (1972-; Jieyang, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), Singer-songwriters of "Guang Liang Pin Guan" ???? / "Wu Yin Liang Pin" ???? fame
- Penny Tai ??? (1978-; Haifeng, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), Singer-songwriter; Best Composer, Golden Melody Awards, 2006
- Z-Chen ???/??? (1973-; born in Malaysia), Singer; Known as "The Little Prince of R&B"
- Gary Chaw ?? (1979-; born in Malaysia), Singer; Winner, Best Male Mandarin Singer, Golden Melody Awards, 2008
- Wong Sze Zen (born in Malaysia), Miss Malaysia/World, 2003
- Lim Pey Yeng ??? (born in Malaysia), First Runner Up, Miss Astro Chinese International Pegeant 2000, Famous TV / Event Host
- Indonesia
- Wendy Setiawan (1973-; born in Indonesia), Cover Girl first winner, 1989, Mode Magazine
- Delon Thamrin (1978-; born in Indonesia), Runner-up, Indonesian Idol Season 1, 2004
Sportspersons
- China
- Lu Qin ??/?? (1962-; Huiyang, Guangdong), Xiangqi grandmaster; Winner, World Xiangqi Individual Championships, 1990, 1995, 1997, 2001 and 2005
- Ye Qiaobo ???/??? (1964-; Hexian, Guangxi), Winner, World Sprint Speed Skating Championships, 1992, 1993
- Xie Yuxin ???/??? (1968-; Xingning, Guangdong), National footballer, 1987-1996; First Chinese to play professional football overseas, 1987; Was the youngest footballer and youngest scorer, China national football team
- Sun Caiyun ???/??? (1973-; Shenzhen, Guangdong), World record-holder, Pole Vault, 1992-1995
- Yang Jinghui ???/??? (1983-; Guangzhou, Guangdong), Gold medalist, Diving, 2004 Athens Olympics
- Chen Hong ??/?? (1979-; Changting, Fujian), Number 1 badminton player on the world ranking list from 2002 to 2003.
- Lin Dan ?? (1983-; Longyan, Fujian), Individual and Team gold medalist, 2008 Beijing Olympics; Winner, World Badminton Championships, 2006, 2007
- Zhang Xiangxiang ???/??? (1983-; Longyan, Fujian), Gold medalist, Weightlifting, 2008 Beijing Olympics
- He Wenna ??? (1989-; Longyan, Fujian), Gold medalist, Gymnastics (Trampoline), 2008 Beijing Olympics
- Taiwan
- Hong Kong
- Lee Wai Tong ??? (1905-1979; Wuhua, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), One of the greatest Asian footballer
Others
- Lam Yiu-Kwai ??? (1877-1966; Huiyang, Guangdong; born in China), Creator of dragon-styled Chinese martial art, Dragon Kung Fu, which has its origins from Hakka Kuen
- Gregory Yong ???/??? (1925-2008; born in Malaysia), Archbishop Emeritus, Singapore, 1977-2000
- Jimmy Choo ??? (1961-; born in Malaysia), Renowned designer of shoes and handbags, United Kingdom
- Chin Lik Keong ???, Creator of I Liq Chuan ??? Chinese martial art
See also
External links
Taiwan Hakka literature museum
Taiwan Hakka literature museum
Taiwan Hakka literature museum
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