The
Great Siege of Gibraltar was an unsuccessful attempt by
SpainSpain , officially the Kingdom of Spain , is a country located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula.
[The Spanish constitution does not establish any official denomination of the country, even though España , Estado español and Nación española are used interchangeably...]
and
FranceFrance , officially the French Republic , is a country located in Western Europe, with several overseas islands and territories located on other continents. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean...
to capture
GibraltarGibraltar is a self-governing British overseas territory located on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula and Europe at the entrance of the Mediterranean overlooking the Strait of Gibraltar. The territory covers and shares a land border with Spain to the north...
from the
BritishThe Kingdom of Great Britain, also known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain, was a sovereign state in northwest Europe, in existence from 1707 to 1801...
during the
American War of IndependenceThe American Revolutionary War , also sometimes known as the American War of Independence, began as a war between the Kingdom of Great Britain and thirteen united former British colonies in North America, and concluded in a global war between several European great powers...
. This was the largest action fought during the war in terms of numbers particularly the
Grand Assault of the 18 September 1782. It was the longest
siegeA siege is a military blockade of a city or fortress with the intent of conquering by attrition or assault. The term derives from sedere, Latin for "to sit"....
endured by the
British Armed ForcesThe armed forces of the United Kingdom, known as His/Her Majesty's Armed Forces or sometimes the British Armed Forces, and sometimes legally the Armed Forces of the Crown, encompasses a navy, an army, and an air force...
, as well as being one of the longest continuous sieges in history.
Background
The
Treaty of Paris (1763)The Treaty of Paris, often called the Peace of Paris, or the Treaty of 1763, was signed on February 10, 1763, by the kingdoms of Great Britain, France and Spain, with Portugal in agreement. It ended the Seven Years' War. The treaty marked the beginning of an extensive period of British dominance...
that had ended the Seven Years War, saw France and Spain hand over a number of territories to Great Britain. In the years of peace that followed both countries hoped for an opportunity to launch a war against Britain on more favourable terms and recover their lost colonial possessions. Following the outbreak of the
AmericanThe United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
Revolutionary War, both states supplied arms to the American rebels, and drew up a strategy to intervene on the American side and defeat Britain.
In June of 1779, Spain declared war on Great Britain, France having done so the year before. The French and Spanish not only wished to retrieve lost territory from the British but needed to secure Gibraltar, which was a key link in Britain's control of the
Mediterranean seaThe Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean surrounded by the Mediterranean region and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Anatolia and Europe, on the south by Africa, and on the east by the Levant. The sea is technically a part of the Atlantic Ocean, although it...
. The capture of Gibraltar was expected to be relatively quick, and the precursor to a Franco-Spanish invasion of
Great BritainGreat Britain is an island lying to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island. With a population of about 59.6 million people, it is the third most populated island on Earth. Great Britain is surrounded by over 1000 smaller...
.
The Great Siege
The fortress was besieged for nearly four years by a combined naval and military force of Spain and France. When the Rock was first besieged, the garrison consisted of 5,382 troops;
General ElliotGeorge Augustus Eliott, 1st Baron Heathfield, KB was a British Army officer most notable for his command of the Gibraltar garrison during the Great Siege of Gibraltar.-Early life:...
was the
Governor-GeneralThe Governor and Commander-in-Chief of Gibraltar is the representative of the British monarch in the British overseas territory of Gibraltar. The Governor is appointed by the British Monarch on the advice of the British Government...
, and his determined handling of the defence inspired all the troops under him with the greatest confidence. All the defences were strengthened, and many of the infantry, including picked men assisted the artillery in serving the guns. The garrison included contingents of
HanoverianThe House of Hanover is a Germanic royal dynasty which has ruled the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg , the Kingdom of Hanover and the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland. It succeeded the House of Stuart as monarchs of Great Britain and Ireland in 1714 and held that office until the...
and
CorsicaCorsica is the fourth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea . It is located west of Italy, southeast of the French mainland, and north of the island of Sardinia....
n troops.
The British had anticipated an attack for some time, and a number of ships had sailed to reinforce and supply
The RockThe Rock of Gibraltar is a monolithic limestone promontory located in Gibraltar, off the southwestern tip of Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. It is 426 metres high. The Rock is Crown property of the United Kingdom, and borders Spain...
. They stepped up their preparations after France entered the conflict in 1778, although the French were initially more concerned with sending forces to America, and it was not until Spain joined the war that the long-expected siege commenced.
Commencement of the Siege
The combined Spanish and French fleets
blockadeA blockade is an effort to cut off the communications of a particular area by force. It is distinct from a siege in that a blockade is usually directed at an entire country or region, rather than a fortress or city. Also, a blockade historically took place at sea, with the blockading power seeking...
d The Rock from the sea, while on the land side an enormous army was engaged in constructing
fortsFortifications are military constructions and buildings designed for defense in warfare and military bases. Humans have constructed defensive works for many thousands of years, in a variety of increasingly complex designs...
,
redoubtA redoubt is a fort or fort system usually consisting of an enclosed defensive emplacement outside a larger fort, usually relying on earthworks, though others are constructed of stone or brick. It is meant to protect soldiers outside the main line of defense and can be a permanent structure or a...
s,
entrenchmentsTrench warfare was a form of warfare in which both combatants occupied static fortified fighting lines, consisting largely of trenches, in which troops were largely immune to the enemy's small arms fire and were substantially sheltered from artillery. It has become a byword for stalemate in...
, and
batteriesIn military organizations, an artillery battery is a unit of guns, mortars, rockets or missiles so grouped in order to facilitate better battlefield communication and command and control, as well as to provide dispersion for its constituent gunnery crews and their systems...
from which to attack. General Elliot formed a
corpsA Corps is either a large formation, or an administrative grouping of troops within an armed force with a common function such as Artillery or Signals representing an arm of service...
of sharpshooters. Initially the Spanish sent twelve thousand troops, including four battalions of
Royal GuardA Royal Guard describes any group of military bodyguard, soldiers or retainers responsible for the protection of a royal person, such as a King or Queen...
s. The posting was considered both a comfortable and fashionable one, as opposed to being sent to serve in one of
Spain's American coloniesThe Spanish colonization of the Americas was the settlement and political rule over much of the western hemisphere which was initiated by the Spanish conquistadors and fought mostly by their native allies...
.
As the winter of 1779 came down the garrison began to suffer from want of fresh provisions, which became very scarce and dear. Bread was almost impossible to get, and was not permitted to be issued except to the sick and children.
Salt meatSalt-cured meat or salted meat, for example bacon and kippered herring, is meat or fish preserved or cured with salt. Salting, either with dry salt or brine, was the only widely available method of preserving food until the 19th century....
and biscuits, and not much of that, soon became the food of the troops, with an occasional issue of four ounces of rice as a full day's
rationRationing is the controlled distribution of resources and scarce goods or services. Rationing controls the size of the ration, one's allotted portion of the resources being distributed on a particular day or at a particular time.- In economics :...
. Fuel was exhausted, and fires were only made with difficulty, the salt-encrusted timbers of old ships broken up in the harbour for the purpose. To the rigours of the siege was added a violent outbreak of
scurvyScurvy is a disease resulting from a deficiency of vitamin C, which is required for the synthesis of collagen in humans. The chemical name for vitamin C, ascorbic acid, is derived from the Latin name of scurvy, scorbutus. Scurvy leads to the formation of spots on the skin, spongy gums, and bleeding...
among the troops, due to the want of fresh vegetables and medicines. As the winter wore on, the scanty store of food grew so alarmingly low that the already meagre ration was reduced to just enough to keep life in the bodies of the men. But their morale remained high and the troops continued to take their turns at trench or battery, and endured the inclement weather and the shortage of food with fortitude.
The Spanish were forced to commit increasing number of troops and ships to the siege, postponing the planned
Invasion of EnglandThe term Invasion of Great Britain may refer to the following planned or actual invasions, successful or otherwise, of Britain or the British Isles:* The 55 and 54 BC Caesar's invasions of Britain.* The 43 AD Roman invasion of Britain....
, due to this and the failure of the
Armada of 1779The Armada of 1779 was an exceptionally large joint French and Spanish fleet intended to facilitate an invasion of England, as part of the wider conflict sparked by the American Revolutionary War, and in application of the Franco-American alliance...
.
First naval relief
Admiral George RodneyAdmiral George Brydges Rodney, 1st Baron Rodney, KB was a British naval officer.- Early career :He was born in Walton-on-Thames, though the family seat was Rodney Stoke, Somerset...
, after defeating two enemy fleets at sea, reached Gibraltar in the following spring, bringing reinforcements of 1,052 men and an abundance of stores. This greatly heartened the garrison, who, as soon as Rodney's fleet left, found the fortress as closely besieged as ever. The defence was stubbornly maintained against every attempt to capture it by assault, and by the end of the summer provisions again began to run out and scurvy to reappear. While shot and shell were unceasingly exchanged between the opposing forces, scurvy and starvation rations made steady inroads into the effective strength of the garrison, but there was no thought of surrender. Through the use of small, fast-sailing ships that ran the blockade they were able to keep in touch with the British forces on
MinorcaMinorca or Menorca is one of the Balearic Islands located in the Mediterranean Sea belonging to Spain. It takes its name from being smaller than the nearby island of Majorca....
, until that island fell in 1781.
Throughout the second winter the garrison faced foes, elements, disease, and starvation, until in the April of 1781 another British fleet succeeded in reaching the harbour with stores and food.
Sortie
The French and Spanish, finding it was impossible to starve the garrison out, resolved to make further attacks by land and sea, and a large army and fleet was assembled to carry this out. But the night before the grand attack was to have been launched, half the British garrison filed silently out of their defence works and made a surprise
sortieSortie is a term for deployment or dispatch of one military unit, be it an aircraft, ship, or troops from a strongpoint. The sortie, whether by one or more aircraft or vessels, usually has a specific mission....
.
The whole body of the enemy infantry in the trenches were routed, their batteries set on fire, and cannon blown up and spiked, their entrenchments destroyed, and a very large number of the Spanish killed or taken prisoners. Damage to the extent of two million pounds was done to the besiegers stores and equipment that night. Spanish losses were over 200; Governor Elliot claiming many were 'killed on the spot' as the surprise was very successful. As the Spanish recovered and prepared to launch a counter-attack, the British withdrew back inside their fortifications.
This reverse postponed the grand assault on The Rock for some time, but the siege was closely maintained.
The Grand Assault
Eventually on 13 September 1782 the
Bourbon alliesThe House of Bourbon is an important European royal house, a branch of the Capetian dynasty. Bourbon kings first ruled Navarre and France in the 16th century. By the 18th century, members of the Bourbon dynasty also held thrones in Spain, Naples & Sicily, and Parma...
launched their great attack; the number involved nearly 70,000 fighting men both French and Spanish. On land an army of 40,000 which consisted of nearly a third of the entire
Spanish metropolitan armyThe armed forces of Spain are known as the Spanish Armed Forces . Their Commander-in-Chief is the King of Spain, Juan Carlos I, and consists of the Army, Navy and Air Force...
, on top of this they were supported by 400 guns. At sea 50 ships which included newly engineered '
floating batteriesA floating battery is a kind of armed watercraft, often improvised or experimental, which carries a heavy armament but has few other qualities as a warship....
' with 200 heavy guns as well as Spanish & French ships of the line which had nearly 30,000 men. An 'army' of over 75,000 spectators thronged the adjacent hills over the Spanish border, among them the highest families in the land, assembled to see the fortress beaten to powder and 'the
British flagThe Union Flag, also known as the Union Jack, is the flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It retains an official or semi-official status in some Commonwealth Realms; for example, it is known as the Royal Union Flag in Canada...
trailed in the dust'. The 200 guns opened fire from floating batteries in the Bay and the 400 guns on the land side, directed on the fortifications after weeks of preparatory artillery fire. But the garrison replied with
red-hot shotHeated shot is the practice of heating round shot before firing from muzzle-loading cannons, for the purpose of setting fire to enemy warships, buildings, or equipment. The use of hot shot dates back centuries and only ceased when vessels armored with iron replaced wooden warships in the world's...
to set fire to and sink the enemy's floating batteries and warships in the Bay, and beating off many attempts to storm the fortress from the land side. The
British redcoatsRed Coat or Redcoat is a term often used to refer to a soldier of the historical British Army, because of the colour of the military uniforms formerly worn by the majority of regiments. The uniform of most British soldiers from the late 17th century to the 19th century, , included a madder red coat...
fired in three ranks deep as wave after wave of Spanish troops tried desperately to get up the walls of the fort. In that great conflict, the British destroyed nearly all the enemy fleet, most of the floating batteries simply blew up as the 'red-hot shot' did its job. In addition 5,000 men both on board the ships (many of whom drowned) and on land were casualties.
Final relief
In Britain the
AdmiraltyThe Admiralty was formerly the authority in the United Kingdom responsible for the command of the Royal Navy. Originally exercised by a single person, the office of Lord High Admiral was from the 18th century onward almost invariably put "in commission", and was exercised by a Board of Admiralty.In...
considered plans for a major relief of Gibraltar, opting to send a larger, but slower fleet, rather than a smaller faster one. In September 1782 a large fleet left
SpitheadSpithead is an area of the Solent and a roadstead off Gilkicker Point in Hampshire, England. It is protected from all winds, except those from the southeast...
under Richard Howe, arriving off Cape St Vincent on 9 October. The following evening a gale blew up, scattering the Spanish fleet. This allowed Howe to sail unopposed into Gibraltar and the merchant ships he was escorting to unload their stores. Howe then sailed out and fought an indecisive battle with the Spanish, before withdrawing to Britain in line with his orders.
The siege was continued for some months longer, but in the spring of 1783 the French and Spanish retired disheartened and defeated, leaving the British garrison victorious, after three years and seven months' conflict. The garrison sustained a loss of 1,231 men, and expended 8,000 barrels of gunpowder.
Aftermath
Finally, in February of 1783 the siege was lifted. George Augustus Eliott was awarded the Knight of the Bath and was created 1st
Baron HeathfieldBaron Heathfield, of Gibraltar, is an extinct title in the Peerage of Great Britain. The Barony was created in 1787 for General Sir George Augustus Eliott, KB in appreciation for his gallant defense of Gibraltar during the Franco-Spanish Siege of 1779–1783, and became extinct on the death of his...
of Gibraltar. The
Treaties of VersaillesThe Treaty of Paris, signed on September 3, 1783, ratified by the Congress of the Confederation on January 14, 1784 and by the King of Great Britain on April 9, 1784 , formally ended the American Revolutionary War between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the United States of America, which had...
reaffirmed previous treaties.
The 39th, in common with the other regiments engaged in the defence, was given the
badge of the Castle of GibraltarThe coat of arms of Gibraltar was first granted by a Royal Warrant passed in Toledo on July 10, 1502 by Isabella of Castile during Gibraltar's Spanish period...
with the motto 'Montis Insignia Calpe', in commemoration of the gallant part it took in the 'Great Siege'.
Music
In 1782
Wolfgang Amadeus MozartWolfgang Amadeus Mozart Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart , was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical era. He composed over 600 works, many acknowledged as...
composed
Bardengesang auf Gibraltar: O Calpe! Dir donnert's am FusseBardengesang auf Gibraltar: O Calpe! Dir donnert's am Fusse is the title of a fragment for voice and piano composed by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart in 1782 to celebrate the Great Siege of Gibraltar...
a piece of music commemorating the Great Siege. Mozart was known to have a favourable view of the British.
Paintings
The 1783 painting,
The Defeat of the Floating Batteries at Gibraltar, September 1782The Defeat of the Floating Batteries at Gibraltar, September 1782 is the title of a 1783 oil-on-canvas painting by Boston-born American artist John Singleton Copley...
, was a work by an American artist
John Singleton CopleyJohn Singleton Copley was an American painter, born presumably in Boston, Massachusetts and a son of Richard and Mary Singleton Copley, both Irish. He is famous for his portrait paintings of important figures in colonial New England, depicting in particular middle-class subjects...
which depicted the event.
A 1789 work by American painter
John TrumbullJohn Trumbull was an American artist during the period of the American Revolutionary War famous for his historical paintings including his Declaration of Independence, which appears on the reverse of the two-dollar bill.-Early years:Trumbull was born in Lebanon, Connecticut, to Jonathan Trumbull,...
,
The Sortie Made by the Garrison of Gibraltar, 1789The Sortie Made by the Garrison of Gibraltar, 1789 is the title of a 1789 oil-on-canvas painting by American artist John Trumbull...
, covered the 1781 raid made by the garrison against the besiegers.