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Geometric series
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In mathematics, a geometric series is a series with a constant ratio between successive terms. For example, the series
is geometric, because each term is equal to half of the previous term. The sum of this series is 1, as illustrated in the following picture:
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Geometric series are one of the simplest examples of infinite series with finite sums. Historically, geometric series played an important role in the early development of calculus, and they continue to be central in the study of convergence of series.
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Encyclopedia
In mathematics, a geometric series is a series with a constant ratio between successive terms. For example, the series
is geometric, because each term is equal to half of the previous term. The sum of this series is 1, as illustrated in the following picture:
-
Geometric series are one of the simplest examples of infinite series with finite sums. Historically, geometric series played an important role in the early development of calculus, and they continue to be central in the study of convergence of series. Geometric series are used throughout mathematics, and they have important applications in physics, engineering, biology, economics, and finance.
Common ratio
The terms of a geometric series form a geometric progression, meaning that the ratio of successive terms in the series is constant. The following table shows several geometric series with different common ratios:
| Common ratio | Example |
|---|
| 10 | 4 + 40 + 400 + 4000 + 40,000 + ··· | | 1/3 | 9 + 3 + 1 + 1/3 + 1/9 + ··· | | 1/10 | 7 + 0.7 + 0.07 + 0.007 + 0.0007 + ··· | | 1 | 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + ··· | | –1/2 | 1 – 1/2 + 1/4 – 1/8 + 1/16 – 1/32 + ··· | | –1 | 3 – 3 + 3 – 3 + 3 – ··· |
The behavior of the terms depends on the common ratio r:
- When r is greater than one, the terms of the series become larger and larger.
- When r is less than one (and greater than zero), the terms of the series become smaller and smaller, approaching zero in the limit.
- When r is equal to one, all of the terms of the series are the same.
The common ratio can also be negative, which causes the sign of the terms to alternate.
Sum
The sum of a geometric series is finite as long as the terms approach zero. The sum can be computed using the self-similarity of the series.
Example
Consider the sum of the following geometric series:
This series has common ratio 2/3. If we multiply through by this common ratio, then the initial 1 becomes a 2/3, the 2/3 becomes a 4/9, and so on:
This new series is the same as the original, except that the first term is missing. Subtracting the two series cancels every term but the first:
A similar technique can be used to evaluate any self-similar expression.
Formula
For r ? 1, the sum of the first n terms of a geometric series is:
where a is the first term of the series, and r is the common ratio.
As n goes to infinity, the absolute value of r must be less than one for the series to converge. The sum then becomes
When , this simplifies to:
the left-hand side being a geometric series with common ratio r. We can derive this formula using the method given above:
The general formula follows if we multiply through by a.
This formula is only valid for convergent series (i.e., when the magnitude of r is less than one). For example, the sum is undefined when , even though the formula gives .
This reasoning is also valid, with the same restrictions, for the complex case.
Proof of convergence
We can prove that the geometric series converges using the sum formula for a geometric progression:
Since for | r | < 1, the limit is .
Applications
Repeating decimals
A repeating decimal can be thought of as a geometric series whose common ratio is a power of 1/10. For example:
You can use the formula for the sum of a geometric series to convert the decimal to a fraction:
Archimedes' quadrature of the parabola
Archimedes used the sum of a geometric series to compute the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line. His method was to dissect the area into an infinite number of triangles, as shown in the figure to the right.
Archimedes' Theorem The total area under the parabola is 4/3 of the area of the blue triangle.
Proof: Using his extensive knowledge of geometry, Archimedes determined that each green triangle has 1/8 the area of the blue triangle, each yellow triangle has 1/8 the area of a green triangle, and so forth.
Assuming that the blue triangle has area 1, the total area is an infinite sum:
The first term represents the area of the blue triangle, the second term the areas of the two green triangles, the third term the areas of the four yellow triangles, and so on. Simplifying the fractions gives
This is a geometric series with common ratio 1/4. The sum is
Q.E.D.
This computation uses the method of exhaustion, an early version of integration. In modern calculus, the same area could be found using a definite integral.
Fractal geometry
In the study of fractals, geometric series often arise as the perimeter, area, or volume of a self-similar figure.
For example, the area inside the Koch snowflake can be described as the union of infinitely many equilateral triangles (see figure). Each side of the green triangle is exactly 1/3 the size of a side of the large blue triangle, and therefore has exactly 1/9 the area. Similarly, each yellow triangle has 1/9 the area of a green triangle, and so forth. Taking the blue triangle as a unit of area, the total area of the snowflake is
The first term of this series represents the area of the blue triangle, the second term the total area of the three green triangles, the third term the total area of the twelve yellow triangles, and so forth. Excluding the initial 1, this series is geometric with constant ratio r = 4/9. The first term of the geometric series is a = 3(1/9) = 1/3, so the sum is
Thus the Koch snowflake has 8/5 of the area of the base triangle.
Zeno's paradoxes
Understanding the convergence of a geometric series allows to resolve many of Zeno's paradoxes as it reveals that a sum of an infinite set can remain finite for | r | < 1. For example Zeno's dichotomy paradox attains that movement is impossible, as one can divide any path into steps of one half of the distance remaining, thus an infinite number of steps is needed to cross any finite distance. The hidden assumption is that a sum of infinite number of finite steps can not be finite. This is of course not true as evident by the convergence of the geometrical series with r=1/2 illustrated at the picture at the introduction section of this article.
Euclid
of Euclid's Elements expresses the partial sum of a geometric series in terms of members of the series. It is equivalent to the modern formula.
Economics
In economics, geometric series are used to represent the present value of an annuity (a sum of money to be paid in regular intervals).
For example, suppose that you expect to receive a payment of $100 once per year in perpetuity. Receiving $100 a year from now is worth less to you than an immediate $100, because you cannot invest the money until you receive it. In particular, the present value of a $100 one year in the future is $100 / (1 + i), where i is the yearly interest rate.
Similarly, a payment of $100 two years in the future has a present value of $100 / (1 + i)2 (squared because it would have received the yearly interest twice). Therefore, the present value of receiving $100 per year in perpetuity can be expressed as an infinite series:
This is a geometric series with common ratio 1 / (1 + i). The sum is
For example, if the yearly interest rate is 10% (i = 0.10), then the entire annuity has a present value of $1000.
This sort of calculation is used to compute the APR of a loan (such as a mortgage). It can also be used to estimate the present value of expected stock dividends, or the terminal value of a security.
Geometric power series
See also
Specific geometric series
History and philosophy
- C. H. Edwards, Jr. (1994). The Historical Development of the Calculus, 3rd ed., Springer. ISBN 978-0387943138.
- Eli Maor (1991). To Infinity and Beyond: A Cultural History of the Infinite, Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691025117
- Morr Lazerowitz (2000). The Structure of Metaphysics (International Library of Philosophy), Routledge. ISBN 978-0415225267
Economics
- Carl P. Simon and Lawrence Blume (1994). Mathematics for Economists, W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0393957334
- Mike Rosser (2003). Basic Mathematics for Economists, 2nd ed., Routledge. ISBN 978-0415267847
Biology
- Edward Batschelet (1992). Introduction to Mathematics for Life Scientists, 3rd ed., Springer. ISBN 978-0387096483
- Richard F. Burton (1998). Biology by Numbers: An Encouragement to Quantitative Thinking, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521576987
Computer science
- John Rast Hubbard (2000). Schaum's Outline of Theory and Problems of Data Structures With Java, McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0071378703
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