Gallina
Encyclopedia
The Gallina or Largo-Gallina culture was an occupation sequence during the pre-hispanic period
in the American Southwest from approximately 1050 to 1300. The culture was located in north-central New Mexico
roughly north of the Jemez Mountains
, and was named after the Rio Gallina (and Largo Canyon), which runs through the region.
, black on white pottery, and architecture. They also have similar ornaments such as shells pierced for stringing, bone beads, and stone pipes.
s from the Gallina time period are often hard to classify. For example, what archeologists originally classified as scrapers
later proved to be knives. Frequently, assessing an object itself is not enough; it becomes necessary to analyze type as well as evidence of use and wear. Commonly found artifacts include vessels and jars. There are indications that the Gallina were advanced at basket weaving. They also may have traded local stone such as Jemez Mountain
Obsidian
and Pedernal
Chert
.
and reusable vessels imitate the Rosa style but still have distinctly different characteristics. For instance, the wide mouth cook pots found commonly at Gallina sites are not seen among Rosa artifacts. Also, all jars found at Rosa sites have flat bottoms whereas the Gallina jars commonly have a tapering underbody that end in a point. This was probably designed to allow the jar to be settled upright in a bed of ashes in the fire pit
. The Gallina also modified the necks of their jars, more than likely designed to allow the jar to be easier to hold. The Gallina are also recognized for their black on white pottery designs that, while not completely accurate, are still more complex than any patterns found at Rosa sites.
s and then completely palisade
d. Surface houses often had storage bins that extended off the east and west side of the house. These houses were generally "unit-type" which has thick walls of unworked stones in mud mortar. The interiors of these houses were smooth and neatly plastered. They also contained fire pits with U-shaped deflectors that directed heat and caught ash. There was generally a ventilator shaft through the wall that followed the north-south orientation of the house. The interior roofs were left as beams and bags were hung from them as a storage method. The surface houses were always rectangular, however, the pit houses could be round or rectangular and tunnels connected pit and surface houses. These houses were moderately transitory as there is some evidence that the Gallina would leave a dwelling to move short distances, probably to follow the rainfall.
towers along ridges. The towers generally had thick walls and better than usual masonry. This thickness was probably designed to support the weight. The towers were not designed as two-story buildings and generally simply entered on the high level by a ladder. These towers were possibly signal stations similar to a line of telegraph stations. Another possibility is that the towers were simply used for storage or any food that was not immediately consumed.
s and kiva
s, the standard material indications of Ancestral Puebloan religions
that were contemporaneous with the Gallina, have not been discovered in the Gallina area. A few possible examples were noted by Florence Hawley Ellis, but their identification is tenuous.
conditions. Although not every year was bad, the pattern was increasingly dry. From 1250 to 1265 the drought was particularly bad, and the years 1278 and 1292 were the worst. However the crops really became impacted from 1171-1296. All of the dates for droughts and predicted impact on crops are based on conifer growth
(from tree rings).
in order to hunt and gather. Each of these mountain camps had two to ten people and brought a cook pot, water jar, food bowl, and canteen with them, opting not actually to make pottery in the camps. The camps were thought to be more hunting-oriented based on the arrows, knives, and scrapers found at the sites. The camps were most frequently located on lava beds because of the retention and radiation of the sun’s heat off the rock. The warmth may have allowed small plots for farming, although this is still under debate. Flat pieces of lava
were adapted for group workplaces and drying meat and plant foods. The dwellings and drying areas had paths leading to them that were sometimes "paved" with slabs of rock or filled in with chinking stones. Ellis believed these sites to be associated with the Gallina; many other archaeologists, however, do not.
. There is evidence that perhaps an exodus occurred beginning around 1275 until the culture had shifted to the Northern portion of Jemez. However, there is evidence that perhaps the Gallina did not move voluntarily. Almost every Gallina skeleton ever found has been that of someone murdered. Broken necks are the most common and the skeletons rarely appear to have been buried. Also commonly found has been remains of Gallina who were murdered, thrown into their homes, and then had the homes burned. Some of the skeletons of the murder victims have been found in the towers. The debate is ongoing for the cause of these murders. Genocide
has been considered, and so has internecine war. The drought could offer evidence for either. Although there is no hard evidence for either, research is ongoing.
Spanish colonization of the Americas
Colonial expansion under the Spanish Empire was initiated by the Spanish conquistadores and developed by the Monarchy of Spain through its administrators and missionaries. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Christian faith through indigenous conversions...
in the American Southwest from approximately 1050 to 1300. The culture was located in north-central New Mexico
New Mexico
New Mexico is a state located in the southwest and western regions of the United States. New Mexico is also usually considered one of the Mountain States. With a population density of 16 per square mile, New Mexico is the sixth-most sparsely inhabited U.S...
roughly north of the Jemez Mountains
Jemez Mountains
The Jemez Mountains are a volcanic group of mountains in New Mexico, United States. The highest point in the range is Chicoma Mountain at an elevation of 11,561 feet . The town of Los Alamos and Los Alamos National Laboratory adjoin the eastern side of the range while the town of Jemez Springs...
, and was named after the Rio Gallina (and Largo Canyon), which runs through the region.
Ancestry
The Gallina are tentatively linked to the Rosa Phase of the Ancestral Puebloans. Evidence indicates a connection to the Rosa people, due to similar skills such as basket weavingBasket weaving
Basket weaving is the process of weaving unspun vegetable fibres into a basket or other similar form. People and artists who weave baskets are called basketmakers and basket weavers.Basketry is made from a variety of fibrous or pliable materials•anything that will bend and form a shape...
, black on white pottery, and architecture. They also have similar ornaments such as shells pierced for stringing, bone beads, and stone pipes.
Tools and artifacts
ArtifactArtifact (archaeology)
An artifact or artefact is "something made or given shape by man, such as a tool or a work of art, esp an object of archaeological interest"...
s from the Gallina time period are often hard to classify. For example, what archeologists originally classified as scrapers
Scraper (archaeology)
In archaeology, scrapers are unifacial tools that were used either for hideworking or woodworking purposes. Whereas this term is often used for any unifacially flaked stone tool that defies classification, most lithic analysts maintain that the only true scrapers are defined on the base of...
later proved to be knives. Frequently, assessing an object itself is not enough; it becomes necessary to analyze type as well as evidence of use and wear. Commonly found artifacts include vessels and jars. There are indications that the Gallina were advanced at basket weaving. They also may have traded local stone such as Jemez Mountain
Jemez Mountains
The Jemez Mountains are a volcanic group of mountains in New Mexico, United States. The highest point in the range is Chicoma Mountain at an elevation of 11,561 feet . The town of Los Alamos and Los Alamos National Laboratory adjoin the eastern side of the range while the town of Jemez Springs...
Obsidian
Obsidian
Obsidian is a naturally occurring volcanic glass formed as an extrusive igneous rock.It is produced when felsic lava extruded from a volcano cools rapidly with minimum crystal growth...
and Pedernal
Cerro Pedernal
Cerro Pedernal, locally known as just "Pedernal", is a narrow mesa in northern New Mexico. The name is Spanish for "flint hill". The mesa lies on the north flank of the Jemez Mountains, south of Abiquiu Lake, in the Española Ranger District of the Santa Fe National Forest. Its caprock was...
Chert
Chert
Chert is a fine-grained silica-rich microcrystalline, cryptocrystalline or microfibrous sedimentary rock that may contain small fossils. It varies greatly in color , but most often manifests as gray, brown, grayish brown and light green to rusty red; its color is an expression of trace elements...
.
Pottery
Some potteryPottery
Pottery is the material from which the potteryware is made, of which major types include earthenware, stoneware and porcelain. The place where such wares are made is also called a pottery . Pottery also refers to the art or craft of the potter or the manufacture of pottery...
and reusable vessels imitate the Rosa style but still have distinctly different characteristics. For instance, the wide mouth cook pots found commonly at Gallina sites are not seen among Rosa artifacts. Also, all jars found at Rosa sites have flat bottoms whereas the Gallina jars commonly have a tapering underbody that end in a point. This was probably designed to allow the jar to be settled upright in a bed of ashes in the fire pit
Fire pit
Fire pits have been in existence for a very long time and despite many technological advancements since the advent of man's use of fire, they have remained a popular item because of their versatility. A fire pit can physically vary from a pit dug into the ground to an elaborate gas burning...
. The Gallina also modified the necks of their jars, more than likely designed to allow the jar to be easier to hold. The Gallina are also recognized for their black on white pottery designs that, while not completely accurate, are still more complex than any patterns found at Rosa sites.
Architecture
Gallina architecture was also influenced by the Rosa style. Villages ranged from three to twenty dwellings and were generally combinations of surface structures and pit houses with north-south orientation. The pit houses were often dug in the high points of mesaMesa
A mesa or table mountain is an elevated area of land with a flat top and sides that are usually steep cliffs. It takes its name from its characteristic table-top shape....
s and then completely palisade
Palisade
A palisade is a steel or wooden fence or wall of variable height, usually used as a defensive structure.- Typical construction :Typical construction consisted of small or mid sized tree trunks aligned vertically, with no spacing in between. The trunks were sharpened or pointed at the top, and were...
d. Surface houses often had storage bins that extended off the east and west side of the house. These houses were generally "unit-type" which has thick walls of unworked stones in mud mortar. The interiors of these houses were smooth and neatly plastered. They also contained fire pits with U-shaped deflectors that directed heat and caught ash. There was generally a ventilator shaft through the wall that followed the north-south orientation of the house. The interior roofs were left as beams and bags were hung from them as a storage method. The surface houses were always rectangular, however, the pit houses could be round or rectangular and tunnels connected pit and surface houses. These houses were moderately transitory as there is some evidence that the Gallina would leave a dwelling to move short distances, probably to follow the rainfall.
Towers
The Gallina constructed masonryMasonry
Masonry is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound together by mortar; the term masonry can also refer to the units themselves. The common materials of masonry construction are brick, stone, marble, granite, travertine, limestone; concrete block, glass block, stucco, and...
towers along ridges. The towers generally had thick walls and better than usual masonry. This thickness was probably designed to support the weight. The towers were not designed as two-story buildings and generally simply entered on the high level by a ladder. These towers were possibly signal stations similar to a line of telegraph stations. Another possibility is that the towers were simply used for storage or any food that was not immediately consumed.
Religion
SipapuSipapu
Sipapu, a Hopi word, is a small hole or indentation in the floor of kivas used by the Ancient Pueblo Peoples and modern-day Puebloans. It symbolizes the portal through which their ancient ancestors first emerged to enter the present world....
s and kiva
Kiva
A kiva is a room used by modern Puebloans for religious rituals, many of them associated with the kachina belief system. Among the modern Hopi and most other Pueblo peoples, kivas are square-walled and underground, and are used for spiritual ceremonies....
s, the standard material indications of Ancestral Puebloan religions
Native American religion
Traditional Native American religions exhibit a great deal of diversity, largely due to the relative isolation of the different tribes that were spread out across the entire breadth of the North American continent for thousands of years, allowing for the evolution of different beliefs and practices...
that were contemporaneous with the Gallina, have not been discovered in the Gallina area. A few possible examples were noted by Florence Hawley Ellis, but their identification is tenuous.
Drought
Starting in 1161, the ecological condition shifted toward droughtDrought
A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply. Generally, this occurs when a region receives consistently below average precipitation. It can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region...
conditions. Although not every year was bad, the pattern was increasingly dry. From 1250 to 1265 the drought was particularly bad, and the years 1278 and 1292 were the worst. However the crops really became impacted from 1171-1296. All of the dates for droughts and predicted impact on crops are based on conifer growth
Dendrochronology
Dendrochronology or tree-ring dating is the scientific method of dating based on the analysis of patterns of tree-rings. Dendrochronology can date the time at which tree rings were formed, in many types of wood, to the exact calendar year...
(from tree rings).
Camps and mountain dwellings
At some point during difficult drought conditions, some members traveled from villages to camp on Canjilon MountainCanjilón Mountain
Canjilón Mountain is a 10,913 ft. mountain approximately six miles northeast of the village of Canjilón, in the Carson National Forest.The word cajilon is the term for "deer antler" in Northern New Mexican Spanish. The mountain was so named because of its resemblance to an antler...
in order to hunt and gather. Each of these mountain camps had two to ten people and brought a cook pot, water jar, food bowl, and canteen with them, opting not actually to make pottery in the camps. The camps were thought to be more hunting-oriented based on the arrows, knives, and scrapers found at the sites. The camps were most frequently located on lava beds because of the retention and radiation of the sun’s heat off the rock. The warmth may have allowed small plots for farming, although this is still under debate. Flat pieces of lava
Lava
Lava refers both to molten rock expelled by a volcano during an eruption and the resulting rock after solidification and cooling. This molten rock is formed in the interior of some planets, including Earth, and some of their satellites. When first erupted from a volcanic vent, lava is a liquid at...
were adapted for group workplaces and drying meat and plant foods. The dwellings and drying areas had paths leading to them that were sometimes "paved" with slabs of rock or filled in with chinking stones. Ellis believed these sites to be associated with the Gallina; many other archaeologists, however, do not.
Abandonment and/or disappearance
Most Gallina sites discovered are found to have been left in perfect order and followed a ritualistic pattern. The fire pits were filled to the rim and then the floors were cleaned. The house was given a quick burning and then the roof timbers were removed. Archaeologists who follow the belief of abandonment tend to think that this was a process designed to minimize the abilities of someone to use personal artifacts left behind in witchcraftWitchcraft
Witchcraft, in historical, anthropological, religious, and mythological contexts, is the alleged use of supernatural or magical powers. A witch is a practitioner of witchcraft...
. There is evidence that perhaps an exodus occurred beginning around 1275 until the culture had shifted to the Northern portion of Jemez. However, there is evidence that perhaps the Gallina did not move voluntarily. Almost every Gallina skeleton ever found has been that of someone murdered. Broken necks are the most common and the skeletons rarely appear to have been buried. Also commonly found has been remains of Gallina who were murdered, thrown into their homes, and then had the homes burned. Some of the skeletons of the murder victims have been found in the towers. The debate is ongoing for the cause of these murders. Genocide
Genocide
Genocide is defined as "the deliberate and systematic destruction, in whole or in part, of an ethnic, racial, religious, or national group", though what constitutes enough of a "part" to qualify as genocide has been subject to much debate by legal scholars...
has been considered, and so has internecine war. The drought could offer evidence for either. Although there is no hard evidence for either, research is ongoing.