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{{Chinese
|s=[[wikt:福|福]] [[wikt:州|州]] [[wikt:话|话]]
|t=[[wikt:福|福]] [[wikt:州|州]] [[wikt:話|話]]
|p=Fúzhōu huà
|j=fuk1 zau1 waa2
|poj=Hok-chiu-oē
|buc='''Hók-ciŭ-uâ'''
({{IPA-nan|huʔ˨˩ tsiu˥˧ vɑ˨˦˨|IPA}})
|t2={{linktext|平|話}}
|s2={{linktext|平|话}}
|p2=Píng huà
|j2=ping4 waa2
|buc2='''Bàng-uâ'''
({{IPA-nan|paŋ˨˩ wɑ˨˦˨|IPA}})
}}
'''Fuzhou dialect''' ({{lang|zh-tw|福州話}}, [[Foochow Romanized]]: {{Audio|Cdo fuzhou dialect.ogg|''Hók-ciŭ-uâ''}}), also known as '''Foochow dialect''', '''Foochow''', '''Foochowese''', '''Fuzhounese''', or '''Fuzhouhua''', is considered the standard dialect of [[Min Dong]], which is a branch of [[Min Chinese|Min]] [[Chinese language|Chinese]] mainly spoken in the eastern part of [[Fujian]] Province. Native speakers also call it '''{{Unicode|Bàng-uâ}}''' ({{lang|zh-tw|平話}}), meaning the language spoken in everyday life. In [[Singapore]] and [[Malaysia]], the language is known as '''Hokchiu''', which is the Min Dong pronunciation of [[Fuzhou]].
Although it is traditionally called a 'dialect', Fuzhou can be variously considered a [[dialect]] or a [[language]] depending on whether one bases their definition on social or linguistic criteria. By linguistic criteria, the Fuzhou dialect is technically a separate language, as it is not mutually intelligible with other [[Min Chinese|Min languages]] - let alone other Sinitic (Chinese) languages.
Centered in [[Fuzhou City]], the Fuzhou dialect covers eleven cities and counties: [[Fuzhou]] ({{lang|zh-tw|福州}}), [[Pingnan County|Pingnan]] ({{lang|zh-tw|屏南}}), [[Gutian County|Gutian]] ({{lang|zh-tw|古田}}), [[Luoyuan County|Luoyuan]] ({{lang|zh-tw|羅源}}), [[Minqing County|Minqing]] ({{lang|zh-tw|閩清}}), [[Lianjiang County|Lianjiang]] ({{lang|zh-tw|連江}}, [[Matsu Islands|Matsu]] included), [[Minhou County|Minhou]] ({{lang|zh-tw|閩侯}}), [[Changle]] ({{lang|zh-tw|長樂}}), [[Yongtai County|Yongtai]] ({{lang|zh-tw|永泰}}), [[Fuqing]] ({{lang|zh-tw|福清}}) and [[Pingtan County|Pingtan]] ({{lang|zh-tw|平潭}}). Fuzhou dialect is also the second local language in northern and middle Fujian cities and counties, like [[Nanping]] ({{lang|zh-tw|南平}}), [[Shaowu]] ({{lang|zh-tw|邵武}}), [[Shunchang County|Shunchang]] ({{lang|zh-tw|順昌}}), [[Sanming]] ({{lang|zh-tw|三明}}) and [[Youxi County|Youxi]] ({{lang|zh-tw|尤溪}}).
Fuzhou dialect is also widely spoken in some regions abroad, especially in Southeastern Asian countries like Malaysia and Indonesia. The city of [[Sibu]] in [[Malaysia]] is called "New Fuzhou" due to the influx of immigrants there in the early 1900s. Similarly, the language has spread to the [[USA]], [[UK]], [[Australia]] and [[Japan]] as a result of immigration in recent decades.
===Formation===
[[File:Qilinbayin.jpg|left|thumb|The authoritative Foochow rime book ''[[Qī Lín Bāyīn]]'']]
After the [[Qin Dynasty]] conquered the Minyue ({{zh|s=闽越}}) people of southeast China in 110 BC, [[Han Chinese]] people began settling what is now Fujian Province. The aboriginal Minyue people - a branch of [[Baiyue]] ({{zh|c=百越|l=The Hundred Yue}}) people who inhabitated most of southern China - were gradually assimilated into Chinese culture. The [[Old Chinese]] language brought by the mass influx of Han immigrants from Northern area gradually mixed with the local [[Minyue language]], from which the Fuzhou dialect and other Min Chinese languages evolved.
The famous book ''[[Qī Lín Bāyīn]]'' ({{lang|zh-tw|戚林八音}}, [[Foochow Romanized]]: ''Chék Lìng Báik-ĭng''), which was compiled in the 17th century, is the first and the most full-scale [[rime book]] that provides a systematic guide to character reading for people speaking or learning the Fuzhou dialect. It once served to standardize the language and is still widely quoted as an authoritative reference book in modern academic research in Min Chinese phonology.
===Studies by Western missionaries===
[[File:Dictionary of foochow h.jpg|left|thumb|''[[:s:Dictionary of the Foochow dialect|Dictionary of the Foochow dialect]]'', 3rd Edition, published in 1929]]
In 1842, [[Fuzhou]] was open to Westerners as a [[treaty port]] after the signing of the [[Treaty of Nanjing]]. But due to the language barrier, however, the first Christian missionary base in this city did not take place without difficulties. In order to convert Fuzhou people, those missionaries found it very necessary to make a careful study of the Fuzhou dialect. Their most notable works are listed below:
* 1856, [[M. C. White]]: [[:s:The Chinese Language Spoken at Fuh Chau|The Chinese language spoken at Fuh Chau]]
* 1870, [[R. S. Maclay]] & [[C. C. Baldwin]]: [http://www.archive.org/details/alphabeticdictio00macl An alphabetic dictionary of the Chinese language in the Foochow dialect]
* 1871, C. C. Baldwin: Manual of the Foochow dialect
* 1891, [[T. B. Adam]]: An English-Chinese Dictionary of the Foochow Dialect
* 1893, [[Charles Hartwell]]: [http://rare.fhl.net/ob.php?book=38&page=1&submit1=%E6%9F%A5%E8%A9%A2 Three Character Classic of Gospel in the Foochow Colloquial ]
* 1898, R. S. Maclay & C. C. Baldwin: An Alphabetic Dictionary of the Chinese Language of the Foochow Dialect, 2nd edition
* 1905, T. B. Adam: [http://books.google.com/books?id=G4sXAAAAYAAJ An English-Chinese Dictionary of the Foochow Dialect, 2nd edition]
* 1906, The Foochow translation of the complete Bible ([http://historical.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/cul.cdl/docviewer?did=cdl181&view=50&frames=0&seq=5], [http://historical.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/cul.cdl/docviewer?did=cdl180&seq=3&frames=0&view=50])
* 1923, T. B. Adam & L. P. Peet: An English-Chinese dictionary of the Foochow dialect, 2nd edition
* 1929, R. S. Maclay & C. C. Baldwin (revised and enlarged by [[S. H. Leger]]): [[:s:Dictionary of the Foochow dialect|Dictionary of the Foochow dialect]]
===Studies by Japanese scholars===
[[File:Japo-foochow2.jpg|left|thumb|''Japanese-Chinese Translation: Fuzhou Dialect'', published in [[Taipei]], 1940. [[Foochow kana]] is used to represent Fooochow pronunciation.]]
During the [[Second World War]], some Japanese scholars became passionate about studying Fuzhou dialect, believing that it could be beneficial to the rule of the [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere]]. One of their most famous works was the ''Japanese-Chinese Translation: Fuzhou Dialect'' ({{lang|ja|日華對譯: 福州語}}) published in 1940 in [[Taipei]], in which [[katakana]] was used to represent Fuzhou pronunciation.
===Status quo===
[[File:Foochow teaching.jpg|thumb|Pupils in Gulou Experimental Elementary School ({{lang|zh-tw|鼓樓實驗小學}}) in Fuzhou are learning the Foochow [[nursery rhyme]] ''Cĭng-cēu-giāng'' ({{lang|zh-tw|真鳥囝}})]]
By the end of the [[Qing Dynasty]], Fuzhou society had been largely [[Multilingualism#Multilingualism at the societal level|monolingual]]. But for decades the Chinese government has discouraged the use of the colloquial in school education and in media, so the number of [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] speakers has been greatly boosted. Recent reports indicate that less than 50% of young people in Fuzhou are able to speak the language.
In [[Mainland China]], the Fuzhou dialect has been officially listed as an [[Intangible Cultural Heritage]] and promotion work is being systematically carried out to preserve its use. In [[Matsu]], currently controlled by the [[Republic of China]] located in [[Taiwan]], the teaching of Fuzhou dialect has been successfully introduced into [[elementary schools]].
==Grammar==
:''This section is about '''Standard Fuzhou dialect''' only. See [[#Regional variations|Regional variations]] for a discussion of other dialects.''
===Phonetics===
{{IPA notice}}
{{SpecialChars}}
{{ChineseText}}
Like all Chinese languages, the Fuzhou dialect is a [[tonal language]], and has extensive [[sandhi]] rules in the [[Syllable onset|initials]], [[Syllable rime|rimes]], and [[tone (linguistics)|tones]]. These complicated rules make Fuzhou dialect one of the most difficult Chinese languages.
====Tones====
There are seven original [[tone (linguistics)|tones]] in Fuzhou dialect, compared with the eight tones of [[Middle Chinese]]:
{| class="wikitable"
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''Name'''
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''Tone contour'''
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''Description'''
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''Example'''
|-
| Dark-level (''Ĭng-bìng'' {{lang|zh-tw|陰平}})
| {{IPA|˥}}
| high level
| {{lang|zh-tw|君}}
|-
| Rising tone (''Siōng-siăng'' {{lang|zh-tw|上聲}})
| {{IPA|˧}}
| middle level
| {{lang|zh-tw|滾}}
|-
| Dark-departing (''Ĭng-ké̤ṳ'' {{lang|zh-tw|陰去}})
| {{IPA|˨˩˧}}
| low falling and rising
| {{lang|zh-tw|貢}}
|-
| Dark-entering (''Ĭng-ĭk'' {{lang|zh-tw|陰入}})
| {{IPA|˨˦}}
| middle rising stopped
| {{lang|zh-tw|谷}}
|-
| Light-level (''Iòng-bìng'' {{lang|zh-tw|陽平}})
| {{IPA|˥˧}}
| high falling
| {{lang|zh-tw|群}}
|-
| Light-entering (''Iòng-ké̤ṳ'' {{lang|zh-tw|陽去}})
| {{IPA|˨˦˨}}
| middle rising and falling
| {{lang|zh-tw|郡}}
|-
| Light-entering (''Iòng-ĭk'' {{lang|zh-tw|陽入}})
| {{IPA|˥}}
| high level stopped
| {{lang|zh-tw|掘}}
|}
The sample characters are taken from the '''''[[Qī Lín Bāyīn]]'''''.
In ''Qī Lín Bāyīn'', the Fuzhou dialect is described as having eight tones, which explains how the book got its title (''Bāyīn'' means "eight tones"). That name, however, is somewhat misleading, because Ĭng-siōng ({{lang|zh-tw|陰上}}) and Iòng-siōng ({{lang|zh-tw|陽上}}) are identical in [[tone contour]]; therefore, only seven tones exist.
Ĭng-ĭk and Iòng-ĭk (or so-called [[entering tone|entering tonal]]) characters are ended with either [[Voiceless velar plosive|velar stop]] {{IPA|[k]}} or [[Glottal stop]] {{IPA|[ʔ]}}.
Besides those seven tones listed above, two new tonal values, "˨˩" (Buáng-ĭng-ké̤ṳ, {{lang|zh-tw|半陰去}}) and {{IPA|˧˥}} (Buáng-iòng-ké̤ṳ, {{lang|zh-tw|半陽去}}) occur in connected speech (see '''Tonal sandhi''' below).
===== Tonal sandhi =====
The rules of [[tonal sandhi]] ({{lang|zh-tw|連讀變調}}) in Fuzhou dialect are complicated, even compared with those of other Chinese dialects. When two or more than two characters combine into a word, the tonal value of the last character remains stable but those of its preceding characters change in most cases ('''regressive''' assimilation). For example, "{{lang|zh-tw|獨}}", "{{lang|zh-tw|立}}" and "{{lang|zh-tw|日}}" are characters of Iòng-ĭk ({{lang|zh-tw|陽入}}) with the same tonal value {{IPA|˥}}, and are pronounced {{IPA|[tuʔ˥]}}, {{IPA|[liʔ˥]}}, and {{IPA|[niʔ˥]}}, respectively. When combined together as the phrase "{{lang|zh-tw|獨立日}}" (Independence Day), "{{lang|zh-tw|獨}}" changes its tonal value to {{IPA|˨˩}}, and "{{lang|zh-tw|立}}" changes its to {{IPA|˧}}, therefore the pronunciation as a whole is {{IPA|[tuʔ˨˩ liʔ˧ niʔ˥]}}.
The two-character tonal sandhi rules are shown in the table below:
{|class=wikitable
|
| bgcolor="#BBFFFF"|Ĭng-bìng ({{lang|zh-tw|陰平}} {{IPA|˥}})
| bgcolor="#BBFFFF"|
Iòng-bìng ({{lang|zh-tw|陽平}} {{IPA|˥˧}})
Iòng-ĭk ({{lang|zh-tw|陽入}} {{IPA|˥}})
| bgcolor="#BBFFFF"|Shǎngshēng ({{lang|zh-tw|上聲}} {{IPA|˧}})
| bgcolor="#BBFFFF"|
Ĭng-ĭk ({{lang|zh-tw|陰去}} {{IPA|˨˩˧}})
Iòng-ké̤ṳ ({{lang|zh-tw|陽去}} {{IPA|˨˦˨}})
Ĭng-ĭk ({{lang|zh-tw|陰入}} {{IPA|˨˦}})
|-
| bgcolor="#FFBBFF"|
Ĭng-bìng ({{lang|zh-tw|陰平}} {{IPA|˥}})
Ĭng-ké̤ṳ ({{lang|zh-tw|陰去}} {{IPA|˨˩˧}})
Iòng-ké̤ṳ ({{lang|zh-tw|陽去}} {{IPA|˨˦˨}})
Ĭng-ĭk-ék ({{lang|zh-tw|陰入乙}} {{IPA|˨˦}})
|
{{IPA|˥}}
| {{IPA|˥}}
| {{IPA|˥˧}}
| {{IPA|˥˧}}
|-
| bgcolor="#FFBBFF"|
Iòng-bìng ({{lang|zh-tw|陽平}} {{IPA|˥˧}})
Iòng-ĭk ({{lang|zh-tw|陽入}} {{IPA|˥}})
| {{IPA|˥}}
| {{IPA|˧}}
| {{IPA|˧}}
| ˨˩
|-
| bgcolor="#FFBBFF"|
Siōng-siăng ({{lang|zh-tw|上聲}} {{IPA|˧}})
Ĭng-ĭk-gák ({{lang|zh-tw|陰入甲}} {{IPA|˨˦}})
| {{IPA|˨˩}}
| {{IPA|˨˩}}
| {{IPA|˧˥}}
| {{IPA|˥}}
|}
Ĭng-ĭk-gák ({{lang|zh-tw|陰入甲}}) are Ĭng-ĭk ({{lang|zh-tw|陰入}}) characters with [[glottal stop]] and Ĭng-ĭk-ék ({{lang|zh-tw|陰入乙}}) with {{IPA|/k/}}.
However, the tonal sandhi rules of more than two characters display further complexities.
====Initials====
There are seventeen [[Syllable onset|initials]] in all:
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan=2|
![[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Palatoalveolar consonant|Palato-
alveolar]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-align=center
!colspan=2|[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA|/m/}} ({{lang|zh-tw|蒙}})
| {{IPA|/n/}} ({{lang|zh-tw|日}})
|
| {{IPA|/ŋ/}} ({{lang|zh-tw|語}})
|
|-align=center
!rowspan=2|[[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
![[aspiration (phonetics)|aspiration]]
| {{IPA|/pʰ/}} ({{lang|zh-tw|波}})
| {{IPA|/tʰ/}} ({{lang|zh-tw|他}})
|
| {{IPA|/kʰ/}} ({{lang|zh-tw|氣}})
|
|-align=center
!plain
| {{IPA|/p/}} ({{lang|zh-tw|邊}})
| {{IPA|/t/}} ({{lang|zh-tw|低}})
|
| {{IPA|/k/}} ({{lang|zh-tw|求}})
| {{IPA|/ʔ/}} ({{lang|zh-tw|鶯}})
|-align=center
!colspan=2|[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| {{IPA|/β/}}
| {{IPA|/s/}} ({{lang|zh-tw|時}})
| {{IPA|/ʒ/}}
| {{IPA|/h/}} ({{lang|zh-tw|喜}})
|
|-align=center
!rowspan=2|[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
![[aspiration (phonetics)|aspiration]]
|
| {{IPA|/tsʰ/}} ({{lang|zh-tw|出}})
|
|
|
|-align=center
!plain
|
| {{IPA|/ts/}} ({{lang|zh-tw|曾}})
|
|
|
|-align=center
!colspan=2| [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
|
| {{IPA|/l/}} ({{lang|zh-tw|柳}})
|
|
|
|}
The Chinese characters in the brackets are also sample characters from ''[[Qī Lín Bāyīn]]''.
Most Chinese linguists argue that Fuzhou dialect should be described as possessing a null onset. In fact, any character that has a null onset begins with a glottal stop {{IPA|[ʔ]}}.
Some speakers find it difficult to distinguish between the initials {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|/l/}}.
No [[Labiodental consonant|labiodental phonemes]], such as {{IPA|/f/}} or {{IPA|/v/}}, exist in Fuzhou dialect, which is one of the most conspicuous characteristics shared by all branches in the [[Min Chinese|Min Family]].
{{IPA|[β]}} and {{IPA|[ʒ]}} exist only in connected speech (see '''Initial assimilation''' below).
===== Initial assimilation =====
In Fuzhou dialect, there are various kinds of '''initial [[Assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]]''' ({{lang|zh-tw|聲母類化}}), all of which are '''progressive'''. When two or more than two characters combine into a word, the initial of the first character stays unchanged while those of the following characters, in most cases, change to match its preceding phoneme, i.e., the [[Syllable coda|coda]] of its preceding character.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''The Coda of the Former Character'''
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''The Initial Assimilation of the Latter Character'''
|-
| Null coda or {{IPA|/-ʔ/}}
| and {{IPA|/pʰ/}} change to {{IPA|[β]}}; and {{IPA|/s/}} change to {{IPA|[l]}}; and {{IPA|/h/}} change to null initial (without {{IPA|[ʔ]}}); and {{IPA|/tsʰ/}} change to {{IPA|/ʒ/}}; and {{IPA|/ŋ/}} remain unchanged.
|-
| {{IPA|/-ŋ/}}
|
{{IPA|/p/}} and {{IPA|/pʰ/}} change to {{IPA|[m]}}; and {{IPA|/l/}} change to {{IPA|[n]}}; and {{IPA|/h/}} change to {{IPA|[ŋ]}}; and {{IPA|/tsʰ/}} change to {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; and {{IPA|/ŋ/}} remain unchanged.
|-
| {{IPA|/-k/}}
| All initials remain unchanged.
|-
|}
====Rimes====
[[File:Foochow vowel chart.png|frame|right|[[Vowel diagram|Chart of vowels]] used in Fuzhou dialect]]
The table below shows the eleven [[vowel|vowel phonemes]] of Fuzhou dialect.
{| class="wikitable"
!rowspan=2|
! colspan=2|[[Front vowel|front]]
! rowspan=2|[[Back vowel|back]]
|-
!unrounded
!rounded
|-align=center
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA|/i/}}
|{{IPA|/y/}}
| {{IPA|/u/}}
|-align=center
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| {{IPA|/e/}}
| {{IPA|/ø/}}
| {{IPA|/o/}}
|-align=center
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| {{IPA|/ɛ/}}
| {{IPA|/œ/}}
| {{IPA|/ɔ/}}
|-align=center
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| {{IPA|/a/}}
|
| {{IPA|/ɑ/}}
|}
In Fuzhou dialect codas {{IPA|/-m/}}, {{IPA|/-n/}}, and {{IPA|/-ŋ/}} have all merged as {{IPA|/-ŋ/}}; and {{IPA|/-p/}}, {{IPA|/-t/}}, {{IPA|/-k/}} have all merged as {{IPA|/-ʔ/}}. Eleven vowel phonemes, together with the codas {{IPA|/-ŋ/}} and {{IPA|/-ʔ/}}, are organized into forty-six [[Syllable rime|rimes]].
{| class="wikitable"
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF" |'''Simple Vowels'''
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/a, ɑ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|蝦, 罷}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/ɛ, a/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|街, 細}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/œ, ɔ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|驢, 告}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/o, ɔ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|哥, 抱}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/i, ɛi/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|喜, 氣}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/u, ou/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|苦, 怒}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/y, øy/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|豬, 箸}}}})
|-
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF" |'''Compound Vowels'''
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/ia, iɑ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|寫, 夜}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/ie, iɛ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|雞, 毅}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/iu, ieu/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|秋, 笑}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/ua, uɑ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|花, 話}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/uo, uɔ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|科, 課}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/yo, yɔ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|橋, 銳}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/ai, ɑi/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|紙, 再}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/au, ɑu/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|郊, 校}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/ɛu, ɑu/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|溝, 構}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/øy, ɔy/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|催, 罪}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/uai, uɑi/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|我, 怪}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/ui, uoi/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|杯, 歲}}}})
|-
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF" |'''Nasal Coda {{IPA|/-ŋ/}}'''
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/aŋ, ɑŋ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|三, 汗}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/iŋ, ɛiŋ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|人, 任}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/uŋ, ouŋ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|春, 鳳}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/yŋ, øyŋ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|銀, 頌}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/iaŋ, iɑŋ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|驚, 命}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/ieŋ, iɛŋ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|天, 見}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/uaŋ, uɑŋ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|歡, 換}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/uoŋ, uɔŋ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|王, 象}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/yoŋ, yɔŋ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|鄉, 樣}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/eiŋ, ɑiŋ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|恒, 硬}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/ouŋ, ɔuŋ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|湯, 寸}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/øyŋ, ɔyŋ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|桶, 洞}}}})
|-
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF" |'''Glottal Coda {{IPA|/-ʔ/}}'''
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/aʔ, ɑʔ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|盒, 鴨}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/øʔ, œʔ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|扔, 嗝}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/eʔ, ɛʔ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|漬, 咩}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/oʔ, ɔʔ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|樂, 閣}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/iʔ, ɛiʔ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|力, 乙}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/uʔ, ouʔ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|勿, 福}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/yʔ, øyʔ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|肉, 竹}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/iaʔ, iɑʔ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|擲, 察}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/ieʔ, iɛʔ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|熱, 鐵}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/uaʔ, uɑʔ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|活, 法}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/uoʔ, uɔʔ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|月, 郭}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/yoʔ, yɔʔ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|藥, 弱}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/eiʔ, ɑiʔ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|賊, 黑}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/ouʔ, ɔuʔ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|學, 骨}}}})
| {{nowrap|{{IPA|/øyʔ, ɔyʔ/}}}} {{nowrap|({{lang|zh-tw|讀, 角}}}})
|}
As has been mentioned above, there are theoretically two different entering tonal codas in Fuzhou dialect: {{IPA|/-k/}} and {{IPA|/-ʔ/}}. But for most Fuzhou dialect speakers, those two codas are only distinguishable when in the [[#Tonal sandhi|tonal sandhi]] or [[#Initial assimilation|initial assimilation]].
===== Close/Open rimes =====
All rimes come in pairs in the above table: the one to the left represents a close rime ({{lang|zh-tw|緊韻}}), while the other represents an open rime ({{lang|zh-tw|鬆韻}}). The close/open rimes are closely related with the tones. As single characters, the tones of Ĭng-bìng ({{lang|zh-tw|陰平}}), Siōng-siăng ({{lang|zh-tw|上聲}}), Iòng-bìng ({{lang|zh-tw|陽平}}) and Iòng-ĭk ({{lang|zh-tw|陽入}}) have close rimes while Ĭng-ké̤ṳ ({{lang|zh-tw|陰去}}), Ĭng-ĭk ({{lang|zh-tw|陰入}}) and Iòng-ké̤ṳ ({{lang|zh-tw|陽去}}) have the open rimes. In connected speech, an open rime shifts to its close counterpart in the [[#Tonal sandhi|tonal sandhi]].
For instance, "{{lang|zh-tw|福}}" (hók) is a Ĭng-ĭk character and is pronounced {{IPA|[houʔ˨˦]}} and "{{lang|zh-tw|州}}" (ciŭ) a Ĭng-bìng character with the pronunciation of {{IPA|[tsiu˥]}}. When these two characters combine into the word "{{lang|zh-tw|福州}}" (Hók-ciŭ, Fuzhou), "{{lang|zh-tw|福}}" changes its tonal value from {{IPA|˨˦}} to {{IPA|˨˩}} and, simultaneously, shifts its rime from {{IPA|[-ouʔ]}} to {{IPA|[-uʔ]}}, so the phrase is pronounced {{IPA|[huʔ˨˩ tsiu˥]}}. While in the word "{{lang|zh-tw|中國}}" {{IPA|[tyŋ˥˧ kuɔʔ˨˦]}} (Dṳ̆ng-guók, China), "{{lang|zh-tw|中}}" is a Ĭng-bìng character and therefore its close rime never changes, though it does change its tonal value from {{IPA|˥}} to {{IPA|˥˧}} in the tonal sandhi.
The phenomenon of close/open rimes is nearly unique to the Fuzhou dialect and this feature makes it especially intricate and hardly intelligible even to other [[Min Chinese|Min languages]]. A similar phenomenon occurs in [[Mandarin dialect|Mandarin]] (Beijing dialect), where the [[triphthong]]s /wei/ and /jou/ are raised to /wi/ and /ju/ in the first two tones (and are always so spelled in the latter fashion in all four tones in the [[Pinyin]] transcription).
===Vocabulary===
Most [[words]] in Fuzhou dialect have [[cognates]] in other [[Chinese languages]], so a non-Fuzhou speaker would find it much easier to understand Fuzhou dialect written in [[Chinese characters]] than spoken in conversation. However, [[false friends]] do exist: for example, "{{lang|zh-tw|莫細膩}}" (mŏ̤h sá̤-nê) means "don't be too polite" or "make yourself at home", "{{lang|zh-tw|我對手汝洗碗}}" (nguāi dó̤i-chiū nṳ̄ sā̤ uāng) means "I help you wash dishes", "{{lang|zh-tw|伊共伊老媽嚟冤家}}" (ĭ gâe̤ng ĭ lâu-mā lā̤ uŏng-gă) means "he and his wife are quarreling (with each other)", etc. Mere knowledge of Mandarin vocabulary does not help one catch the meaning of these sentences.
The majority of Fuzhou dialect vocabulary dates back to more than 1,200 years ago. Some daily-used words are even preserved as they were in the [[Tang Dynasty]], which can be illustrated by a poem of a famous Chinese poet Gu Kuang ({{lang|zh-tw|顧況}}). In his poem ''Jiǎn'' ({{lang|zh-tw|囝}}), Gu Kuang explicitly noted:
{{quotation|{{lang|zh-tw|囝，音蹇。閩俗呼子為囝，父為郎罷。}}
"{{lang|zh-tw|囝}} is pronounced as {{lang|zh-tw|蹇}}. In Fujian vernacular son is called {{lang|zh-tw|囝}}, and father {{lang|zh-tw|郎罷}}."}}
In Fuzhou dialect, "{{lang|zh-tw|囝}}" (giāng) and "{{lang|zh-tw|郎罷}}" (nòng-mâ) are still in use today, without any slightest change.
====Words from Ancient Chinese====
Quite a few words from [[Ancient Chinese]] (mainly [[Ancient Wu language|Ancient Wu]] and [[Ancient Chu language|Ancient Chu]]) have retained the original meanings for thousands of years, while their counterparts in [[Mandarin Chinese]] have either fallen out of daily use or varied to different meanings.
This table shows some Fuzhou dialect words from Classical Chinese, as contrasted to Mandarin Chinese:
{| class="wikitable"
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''Meaning'''
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''Fuzhou dialect'''
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''[[Foochow Romanized]]'''
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''Mandarin'''
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''[[Pinyin]]'''
|-
| eye
| {{lang|zh-tw|目睭/目珠}}
| mĕ̤k-ciŭ {{IPA|[møyʔ˥ tsiu˥]}}
| {{lang|zh-tw|眼睛}}
| yǎnjīng
|-
| you
| {{lang|zh-tw|汝}}
| nṳ̄ {{IPA|[ny˧]}}
| {{lang|zh-tw|你}}
| nǐ
|-
| [[chopstick]]
| {{lang|zh-tw|箸}}
| dê̤ṳ {{IPA|[tøy˨˦˨]}}
| {{lang|zh-tw|筷子}}
| kuàizi
|-
| to chase
| {{lang|zh-tw|逐}}
| dṳ̆k {{IPA|[tyʔ˥]}}
| {{lang|zh-tw|追}}
| zhuī
|-
| to look, to watch
| {{lang|zh-tw|覷/覰/䁦}}
| ché̤ṳ {{IPA|[tsʰøy˨˩˧]}}
| {{lang|zh-tw|看}}1
| kàn
|-
| wet
| {{lang|zh-tw|潤}}
| nóng {{IPA|[nouŋ˨˩˧]}}
| {{lang|zh-tw|濕}}
| shī
|-
| black
| {{lang|zh-tw|烏}}
| ŭ {{IPA|[u˥]}}
| {{lang|zh-tw|黑}}
| hēi
|-
| to feed
| {{lang|zh-tw|豢}}
| huáng {{IPA|[huɑŋ˨˩˧]}}
| {{lang|zh-tw|養}}²
| yǎng
|}
:1 "{{lang|zh-tw|看}}" (káng) is also used as the verb "to look" in Fuzhou dialect.
:2 "{{lang|zh-tw|養}}" (iōng) in Fuzhou dialect means "give birth to (a child)".
And this table shows some words that are both used in Fuzhou dialect and Mandarin Chinese, while the meanings in Mandarin Chinese have altered:
{| class="wikitable"
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''Word'''
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''Foochow Romanized'''
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''Meaning in Classical Chinese and Fuzhou dialect'''
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''Pinyin'''
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''Meaning in Mandarin'''
|-
| {{lang|zh-tw|走}}
| cāu {{IPA|[tsau˧]}}
| to flee
| zǒu
| to walk
|-
| {{lang|zh-tw|細}}
| sá̤ {{IPA|[sɑ˨˩˧]}}
| tiny, small, young
| xì
| thin, slender
|-
| {{lang|zh-tw|湯}}
| tŏng {{IPA|[tʰouŋ˥]}}
| hot water
| tāng
| soup
|-
| {{lang|zh-tw|說}}
| suók/siók {{IPA|[suɔʔ˨˦]}}
| to explain, to clarify
| shuō
| to speak, to talk
|-
| {{lang|zh-tw|懸}}
| gèng {{IPA|[keiŋ˥˧]}}
| tall, high
| xuán
| to hang, to suspend (v.)
|-
| {{lang|zh-tw|喙}}
| chói {{IPA|[tsʰui˨˩˧]}}
| mouth
| huì
| beak
|}
====Words from Minyue language====
Some daily used words, shared by all [[Min language]]s, came from the ancient Minyue language. Such as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''Word'''
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''Foochow Romanized'''
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''[[Min Nan]] / Taiwanese [[POJ]]'''
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''Meaning'''
|-
| {{lang|zh-tw|骹}}
| kă ([kʰa˥])
| kha ([kʰa˥])
| foot and leg
|-
| {{lang|zh-tw|囝}}
| giāng {{IPA|[kiaŋ˧]}}
| kiáⁿ ([kiã˥˩])
| son, child, whelp, a small amount
|-
| {{lang|zh-tw|睏}}
| káung {{IPA|[kʰɑuŋ˧]}}
| khùn {{IPA|[kʰun˨˩]}}
| to sleep
|-
| {{lang|zh-tw|骿}}
| piăng {{IPA|[pʰiaŋ˥]}}
| phiaⁿ {{IPA|[pʰiã˥]}}
| back, dorsum
|-
| {{lang|zh-tw|儂}}
| nè̤ng {{IPA|[nøyŋ˥˧]}}
| lâng {{IPA|[laŋ˨˦]}}
| human
|-
| {{lang|zh-tw|厝}}
| chuó/chió {{IPA|[tsʰuɔ˥˧]}}
| chhù {{IPA|[tsʰu˨˩]}}
| home, house
|-
| {{lang|zh-tw|刣}}
| tài {{IPA|[tʰai˥˧]}}
| thâi {{IPA|[tʰai˨˦]}}
| to kill, to slaughter
|}
====The literary and colloquial readings====
The [[literary and colloquial reading]]s ({{lang|zh-tw|文白異讀}}) is a feature commonly found in all Chinese dialects throughout China. The literary readings ({{lang|zh-tw|文讀}}) are mainly used in formal phrases and written language, while the colloquial ones ({{lang|zh-tw|白讀}}) are basically used in vulgar phrases and spoken language.
This table displays some widely used characters in Fuzhou dialect which have both literary and colloquial readings:
{| class="wikitable"
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''Character'''
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''Literary reading'''
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''Phrase'''
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''Meaning'''
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''Colloquial reading'''
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''Phrase'''
| bgcolor="#ABCDEF"|'''Meaning'''
|-
| {{lang|zh-tw|行}}
| hèng {{IPA|[heiŋ˥˧]}}
| {{lang|zh-tw|行李}} hèng-lī
| luggage
| giàng {{IPA|[kiaŋ˥˧]}}
| {{lang|zh-tw|行墿}} giàng-duô
| to walk
|-
| {{lang|zh-tw|生}}
| sĕng {{IPA|[seiŋ˥]}}
| {{lang|zh-tw|生態}} sĕng-tái
| [[zoology]], [[ecology]]
| săng {{IPA|[saŋ˥]}}
| {{lang|zh-tw|生囝}} săng-giāng
| childbearing
|-
| {{lang|zh-tw|江}}
| gŏng {{IPA|[kouŋ˥]}}
| {{lang|zh-tw|江蘇}} Gŏng-sŭ
| [[Jiangsu]]
| gĕ̤ng {{IPA|[køyŋ˥]}}
| {{lang|zh-tw|閩江}} [[:cdo:Mìng-gĕ̤ng|Mìng-gĕ̤ng]]
| [[Minjiang River (Fujian)|Min River]]
|-
| {{lang|zh-tw|百}}
| báik {{IPA|[pɑiʔ˨˦]}}
| {{lang|zh-tw|百科}} báik-kuŏ
| encyclopedical
| báh {{IPA|[pɑʔ˨˦]}}
| {{lang|zh-tw|百姓}} báh-sáng
| common people
|-
| {{lang|zh-tw|飛}}
| hĭ {{IPA|[hi˥]}}
| {{lang|zh-tw|飛機}} hĭ-gĭ
| aeroplane
| buŏi {{IPA|[pui˥]}}
| {{lang|zh-tw|飛鳥}} buŏi-cēu
| flying birds
|-
| {{lang|zh-tw|寒}}
| hàng {{IPA|[haŋ˥˧]}}
| {{lang|zh-tw|寒食}} Hàng-sĭk
| [[Cold Food Festival]]
| gàng {{IPA|[kaŋ˥˧]}}
| {{lang|zh-tw|天寒}} tiĕng gàng
| cold, freezing
|-
| {{lang|zh-tw|廈}}
| hâ {{IPA|[hɑ˨˦˨]}}
| {{lang|zh-tw|大廈}} dâi-hâ
| mansion
| â {{IPA|[ɑ˨˦˨]}}
| {{lang|zh-tw|廈門}} [[:cdo:Â-muòng|Â-muòng]]
| [[Amoy]] (Xiamen)
|}
====Loan words from English====
The [[First Opium War]], also known as the First Anglo-Chinese War, was ended in 1842 with the signing of the [[Treaty of Nanjing]], which forced the [[Qing government]] to open [[Fuzhou]] to all [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] traders and missionaries. Since then, quite a number of churches and Western-style schools have been established. Consequently, some [[English language|English]] words [[Loanword|came into]] Fuzhou dialect, but without fixed written forms in Chinese characters. The most frequently used words are listed below:, {{IPA|[khouʔ˥]}}, [[noun]], meaning "an article of dress", is from the word "coat";, {{IPA|[nɛʔ˥]}}, noun, meaning "a meshwork barrier in tennis or badminton", is from the word "net";, {{IPA|[pheiŋ˥˧]}}, noun, meaning "oil paint", is from the word "paint";, {{IPA|[pheiŋ˥˧ ŋiaŋ˧}}, noun, meaning "a small sum of money", is from the word "penny";, {{IPA|[thɛʔ˥]}}, noun, meaning "money", is from the word "take";, {{IPA|[kɛ˥˧ lo˧]}}, noun, meaning "girl" in a humorous way, is from the word "girl";, {{IPA|[so˥˧]}}, [[verb]], meaning "to shoot (a basket)", is from the word "shoot";, {{IPA|[a˥ ki˥˧]}}, verb, meaning "to pause (usually a game)", is from the word "again"., {{IPA|[ma˨˩ laʔ˥ ka˥]}}, meaning "Southeastern Asian (esp. [[Singapore]] and [[Malaysia]])", is from the word "[[Malacca]]".
===Examples===
{{Inline audio|section}}
Some common phrases in Fuzhou dialect:
* Fuzhou dialect: {{lang|zh-tw|福州話}} ''Hók-ciŭ-uâ'' {{IPA-nan|huʔ˨˩ tsiu˥˧ uɑ˨˦˨||Cdo fuzhou dialect.ogg}}
* Hello: {{lang|zh-tw|汝好}} {{Audio|help=no|Cdo hello.ogg|''Nṳ̄ hō̤''}} {{IPA|[ny˧ ho˧]}}
* Good-bye: {{lang|zh-tw|再見}} {{Audio|help=no|Cdo goodbye.ogg|''Cái-giéng''}} {{IPA|[tsai˥˧ kiɛŋ˨˩˧]}}
* Please: {{lang|zh-tw|請}} {{Audio|help=no|Cdo please.ogg|''Chiāng''}} {{IPA|[tshiaŋ˧]}}; {{lang|zh-tw|起動}} {{Audio|help=no|Cdo do me a favor.ogg|''Kī-dâe̤ng''}} {{IPA|[khi˥ lɔyŋ˨˦˨]}}
* Thank you: {{lang|zh-tw|謝謝}} {{Audio|help=no|Cdo thanks.ogg|''Siâ-siâ''}} {{IPA|[sia˥˧ liɑ˨˦˨]}}; {{lang|zh-tw|起動}} ''Kī-dâe̤ng'' {{IPA|[khi˥ lɔyŋ˨˦˨]}}
* Sorry: {{lang|zh-tw|對不住}} {{Audio|help=no|Cdo sorry.ogg|''Dó̤i-bók-cê̤ṳ''}} {{IPA|[tøy˨˩ puʔ˥ tsøy˨˦˨]}}
* This: {{lang|zh-tw|嚽}} {{Audio|help=no|Cdo this cuoi.ogg|''Cuòi''}} {{IPA|[tsui˥˧]}}; {{lang|zh-tw|啫}} {{Audio|help=no|Cdo this cia.ogg|''Ciā''}} {{IPA|[tsia˧]}}; {{lang|zh-tw|茲}} {{Audio|help=no|Cdo this ci.ogg|''Cī''}} {{IPA|[tsi˧]}}
* That: {{lang|zh-tw|噲}} {{Audio|help=no|Cdo that huoi.ogg|''Huòi''}} {{IPA|[hui˥˧]}}; {{lang|zh-tw|嘻}} {{Audio|help=no|Cdo that hia.ogg|''Hiā''}} {{IPA|[hia˧]}}; 許 {{Audio|help=no|Cdo that hi.ogg|''Hī''}} {{IPA|[hi˧]}}
* How much?: {{lang|zh-tw|偌}} {{Audio|help=no|Cdo how much.ogg|''Nuâi''}} (''niŏh-uâi'') {{IPA|[nuai˨˦˨]}} ({{IPA|[nuoʔ˨˩ uɑi˨˦˨]}})
* Yes: {{lang|zh-tw|正是}} {{Audio|help=no|Cdo yes.ogg|''Ciáng-sê''}} {{IPA|[tsiaŋ˥˧ nɛi˨˦˨]}}; {{lang|zh-tw|無綻}} {{Audio|help=no|Cdo not wrong.ogg|''Mò̤ dâng''}} {{IPA|[mo˨˩ lɑŋ˨˦˨]}}; {{lang|zh-tw|著}} {{Audio|help=no|Cdo right.ogg|''Diŏh''}} (''Duŏh'') {{IPA|[tyoʔ˥]}} ({{IPA|[tuoʔ˥]}})
* No: {{lang|zh-tw|伓是}} {{Audio|help=no|Cdo no.ogg|''Ng-sê''}} {{IPA|[ŋ˥˧ nɛi˨˦˨]}}; {{lang|zh-tw|綻}} {{Audio|help=no|Cdo wrong.ogg|''Dâng''}} {{IPA|[tɑŋ˨˦˨]}}; {{lang|zh-tw|賣著}} {{Audio|help=no|Cdo not right.ogg|''Mâ̤ diŏh''}} (''Mâ̤ duŏh'') {{IPA|[me˥ tyoʔ˥]}} ({{IPA|[me˥ tuoʔ˥]}})
* I don't understand: {{lang|zh-tw|我賣會意}} {{Audio|help=no|Cdo i dont understand.ogg|''Nguāi mâ̤ huôi-é''}} {{IPA|[ŋuai˧ me˨˩ hui˥˧ ɛi˨˩˧]}}
* What's his name?: {{lang|zh-tw|伊名什乇？|}} {{Audio|help=no|Cdo whats his name.ogg|''Ĭ miàng sié-nó̤h?''}} {{IPA|[i˥ miaŋ˥˧ sie˨˩ nɔʔ˨˦]}}
* Where's the hotel?: {{lang|zh-tw|賓館洽底所？}} {{Audio|help=no|Cdo where is the hotel.ogg|''Bĭng-guāng găk diē-nē̤?''}} {{IPA|[piŋ˥˧ kuaŋ˧ kaʔ˥ tie˨˦ nœ˧]}}
* How can I go to the school?: {{lang|zh-tw|去學校怎樣行？}} {{Audio|help=no|Cdo how to go to school.ogg|''Kó̤ hăk-hâu cuōng-iông giàng?''}} {{IPA|[kho˥˧ haʔ˨˩ hɑu˨˦˨ tsuoŋ˥ yɔŋ˨˦˨ kiaŋ˥˧]}}
* Do you speak Fuzhou dialect?: {{lang|zh-tw|汝會講福州話賣？}} {{Audio|help=no|Cdo can you speak fuzhou dialect.ogg|''Nṳ̄ â̤ gōng Hók-ciŭ-uâ mâ̤?''}} {{IPA|[ny˧ e˥˧ kouŋ˧ huʔ˨˩ tsiu˥˧ uɑ˨˦˨ ma˨˦˨]}}
* Do you speak English?: {{lang|zh-tw|汝會講英語賣？}} {{Audio|help=no|Cdo can you speak english.ogg|''Nṳ̄ â̤ gōng Ĭng-ngṳ̄ mâ̤?''}} {{IPA|[ny˧ e˥˧ kouŋ˧ iŋ˥˧ ŋy˧ ma˨˦˨]}}
===Chinese characters===
[[File:Foochow Bible in Characters.gif|thumb|left|Foochow Bible in Chinese Characters, published by China Bible House in 1940.]]
Most of the characters of Fuzhou dialect stem from [[Ancient Chinese]] and can therefore be written in Chinese characters. Many books published in [[Qing Dynasty]] have been written in this traditional way, such as the famous '''''Mǐndū Biéjì''''' ({{lang|zh-tw|閩都別記}}, Foochow Romanized: Mìng-dŭ Biék-gé). However, Chinese characters as the writing system for Fuzhou dialect do have many shortcomings.
Firstly, a great number of characters are unique to Fuzhou dialect, so that they can only be written in informal ways. For instance, the character "{{unicode|mâ̤}}", a negative word, has no common form. Some write it as "{{lang|zh-tw|賣}}" or "{{lang|zh-tw|袂}}", both of which share with it an identical pronunciation but has a totally irrelevant meaning; and others prefer to use a newly-created character combining "{{lang|zh|勿}}" and "{{lang|zh|會}}", but this character is not included in most fonts.
Secondly, Fuzhou dialect has been excluded from the educational system for many decades. As a result, many if not all take for granted that Fuzhou dialect does not have a formal writing system and when they have to write it, they tend to misuse characters with a similar [[Mandarin Chinese]] enunciation. For example, "{{lang|zh-tw|會使}} ({{unicode|â̤ sāi}})", meaning "okay", are frequently written as "{{lang|zh-tw|阿塞}}" because they are uttered almost in the same way.
===Foochow Romanized===
[[File:Foochow Bible.gif|thumb|right|[[Bible]] in Foochow Romanized, published by British and Foreign Bible Society in 1908.]]
{{Main|Foochow Romanized}}
'''Foochow Romanized''', also known as {{Unicode|'''Bàng-uâ-cê'''}} ({{lang|zh-tw|平話字}}, '''BUC''' for short) or {{Unicode|'''Hók-ciŭ-uâ Lò̤-mā-cê'''}} ({{lang|zh-tw|福州話羅馬字}}), is a [[romanization|romanized]] [[orthography]] for Fuzhou dialect adopted in the middle of 19th century by [[United States|American]] and [[United Kingdom|English]] [[missionaries]]. It had varied at different times, and became standardized several decades later. Foochow Romanized was mainly used inside of Church circles, and was taught in some Mission Schools in [[Fuzhou]].
{{Expand section|date=June 2008}}
===Mǐnqiāng Kuàizì===
{{Main|Mǐnqiāng Kuàizì}}
'''Mǐnqiāng Kuàizì''' ({{lang|zh-tw|閩腔快字}}, Foochow Romanized: ''Mìng-kiŏng Kuái-cê''), literally meaning "Fujian Colloquial Fast Characters", is a Qieyin System ({{lang|zh-tw|切音系統}}) for Fuzhou dialect designed by Chinese scholar and calligrapher Li Jiesan ({{lang|zh-tw|力捷三}}) in 1896.
{{Expand section|date=June 2008}}
==See also==
{{Commons category|Fuzhou dialect}}
{{wikisource|The Chinese Language Spoken at Fuh Chau}}
{{wikisource|Dictionary of the Foochow Dialect}}
* [[Qī Lín Bāyīn]]
* [[Foochow Romanized]]
* [[Min Chinese]]
* [[Min Dong]]
* [[Min Nan]]
* [[Chinatown, Brooklyn]]
* [[Chinatown, Flushing]]
* [[Chinatown, Manhattan]]
* [[East Broadway (Manhattan)|Manhattan's Little Fuzhou]]
==Further reading==(Original from the University of California)(Original from Harvard University)(Original from Columbia University)
===Books and other sources===
* Cathryn Donohue: [http://www.meertens.knaw.nl/pdf/variatielinguistiek/tone/donohue.pdf The tone-vowel interaction in Fuzhou revisited], [[Australian National University]]
* Chen, Leo & Norman, Jerry: ''An Introduction to the Foochow Dialect'', San Francisco State Coll., CA, 1965.
* Chen, Leo: ''Foochow-English, English-Foochow glossary'', San Francisco, Calif. : Asian Language Publication, c1969.
* Li Zhuqing: ''Fuzhou-English Dictionary'', Dunwoody Press (1998).
* Li Zhuqing: ''Fuzhou Phonology and Grammar'', Dunwoody Press (2002).
==External links==
{{interwiki|code=cdo}}
* [http://www.study.matsu.edu.tw/language/index.htm Fuzhou Dialect Textbook]: Elementary school textbook in [[Matsu islands|Matsu]].
* [http://www.glossika.com/en/dict/phon/fuzhou.htm Fuzhou dialect phonology], by James Campbell.
* [http://www.archive.org/details/alphabeticdictio00macl An alphabetic dictionary of the Chinese language in the Foochow dialect (1870)] ({{PDFlink|[http://www.archive.org/download/alphabeticdictio00macl/alphabeticdictio00macl.pdf download link]|83 MB}}), by [[R.S. Maclay]] and [[C.C. Baldwin]].
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=G4sXAAAAYAAJ An English-Chinese Dictionary of the Foochow Dialect] ({{PDFlink|[http://www.gnudoyng.net/fuzhou_dialect/ef_dic_adam.pdf download link]|8.48 MB}}), by [[T.B. Adam]], 1905
* [http://w6.wfjh.tpc.edu.tw/country/FIVE_LANG/5L/M/fz/A.html Five Languages Translator]
* [http://www.gnudoyng.net/fuzhou_dialect/resources.php Fuzhou Dialect Resources]
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