Friends' Ambulance Unit
Encyclopedia
The Friends' Ambulance Unit (FAU) was a volunteer ambulance service
Ambulance
An ambulance is a vehicle for transportation of sick or injured people to, from or between places of treatment for an illness or injury, and in some instances will also provide out of hospital medical care to the patient...

, founded by individual members of the British
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...

 Religious Society of Friends
Religious Society of Friends
The Religious Society of Friends, or Friends Church, is a Christian movement which stresses the doctrine of the priesthood of all believers. Members are known as Friends, or popularly as Quakers. It is made of independent organisations, which have split from one another due to doctrinal differences...

 (Quakers), in line with their Peace Testimony
Peace Testimony
Peace testimony, or testimony against war, is a shorthand description of the action generally taken by members of the Religious Society of Friends for peace and against participation in war. Like other Quaker testimonies, it is not a "belief", but a description of committed actions, in this case...

. The FAU operated from 1914–1919, 1939–1946 and 1946-1959 in 25 different countries around the world. It was independent of the Quakers' organisation and chiefly staffed by registered conscientious objector
Conscientious objector
A conscientious objector is an "individual who has claimed the right to refuse to perform military service" on the grounds of freedom of thought, conscience, and/or religion....

s.

First World War

The Unit was founded as the "Anglo-Belgian Ambulance Unit" at the start of World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...

 in 1914 and later renamed the Friends' Ambulance Unit. Members were trained at Jordans, a hamlet
Hamlet (place)
A hamlet is usually a rural settlement which is too small to be considered a village, though sometimes the word is used for a different sort of community. Historically, when a hamlet became large enough to justify building a church, it was then classified as a village...

 in Buckinghamshire
Buckinghamshire
Buckinghamshire is a ceremonial and non-metropolitan home county in South East England. The county town is Aylesbury, the largest town in the ceremonial county is Milton Keynes and largest town in the non-metropolitan county is High Wycombe....

, that was a centre for Quakerism
Religious Society of Friends
The Religious Society of Friends, or Friends Church, is a Christian movement which stresses the doctrine of the priesthood of all believers. Members are known as Friends, or popularly as Quakers. It is made of independent organisations, which have split from one another due to doctrinal differences...

. Altogether it sent over a thousand men to France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...

 and Belgium
Belgium
Belgium , officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO.Belgium is also a member of, or affiliated to, many...

, where they worked on ambulance convoys and ambulance trains with the French and British armies. It was dissolved in 1919.

Second World War and aftermath

It was refounded by a committee of former members at the start of World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...

 in September 1939 with the establishment of a training camp at Manor Farm, Bristol Road, Northfield
Northfield, West Midlands
Northfield is a residential area on the southern outskirts of metropolitan Birmingham, England and near the boundary with Worcestershire. It is also a council constituency, managed by its own district committee...

, Birmingham
Birmingham
Birmingham is a city and metropolitan borough in the West Midlands of England. It is the most populous British city outside the capital London, with a population of 1,036,900 , and lies at the heart of the West Midlands conurbation, the second most populous urban area in the United Kingdom with a...

 (the home of Dame Elizabeth Cadbury). More than 1,300 members were trained and went on to serve as ambulance drivers and medical orderlies in London
London
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...

 during the Blitz
The Blitz
The Blitz was the sustained strategic bombing of Britain by Nazi Germany between 7 September 1940 and 10 May 1941, during the Second World War. The city of London was bombed by the Luftwaffe for 76 consecutive nights and many towns and cities across the country followed...

, as well as overseas in Finland
Finland
Finland , officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.Around 5.4 million people reside...

, Norway
Norway
Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of and a population of about 4.9 million...

 and Sweden
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....

 (1940), the Middle East
Middle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...

 (1940–1943), Greece
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....

 (1941, 1944–1946), China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...

 and Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....

 (1941–1946), India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...

 and Ethiopia
Ethiopia
Ethiopia , officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is the second-most populous nation in Africa, with over 82 million inhabitants, and the tenth-largest by area, occupying 1,100,000 km2...

 (1942–1945), Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...

 (1943–1946), France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...

, Belgium, Netherlands
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...

, Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia refers to three political entities that existed successively on the western part of the Balkans during most of the 20th century....

 and Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...

 (1944–1946) and Austria
Austria
Austria , officially the Republic of Austria , is a landlocked country of roughly 8.4 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the...

 (1945–1946).

Two 12-man sections with eight vehicles, FAU Relief Sections Nos 1 and 2, landed at Arromanches, Normandy
Normandy
Normandy is a geographical region corresponding to the former Duchy of Normandy. It is in France.The continental territory covers 30,627 km² and forms the preponderant part of Normandy and roughly 5% of the territory of France. It is divided for administrative purposes into two régions:...

 on 6 September 1944 from a tank landing craft. Attached to the British Army's civilian affairs branch, the FAU sections provided relief to civilians in Normandy. No 2 FAU was then posted to a newly liberated refugee camp at Leopoldsburg
Leopoldsburg
Leopoldsburg is a municipality located in the Belgian province of Limburg. On January 1, 2006 Leopoldsburg had a total population of 14,403. The total area is 22.49 km² which gives a population density of 640 inhabitants per km².-External links:*...

, Belgium, managing reception, registration, disinfection, catering, dormitories and departures.

In November 1944, in response to a request from 21st Army Group, a further five more sections were established and arrived in Europe at the end of 1944. One new member was Gerald Gardiner, who subsequently became Lord Chancellor
Lord Chancellor
The Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain, or Lord Chancellor, is a senior and important functionary in the government of the United Kingdom. He is the second highest ranking of the Great Officers of State, ranking only after the Lord High Steward. The Lord Chancellor is appointed by the Sovereign...

 in Harold Wilson
Harold Wilson
James Harold Wilson, Baron Wilson of Rievaulx, KG, OBE, FRS, FSS, PC was a British Labour Member of Parliament, Leader of the Labour Party. He was twice Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during the 1960s and 1970s, winning four general elections, including a minority government after the...

's Labour Party
Labour Party (UK)
The Labour Party is a centre-left democratic socialist party in the United Kingdom. It surpassed the Liberal Party in general elections during the early 1920s, forming minority governments under Ramsay MacDonald in 1924 and 1929-1931. The party was in a wartime coalition from 1940 to 1945, after...

 government of 1964-1970.

After a period in Nijmegen, assisting local civilian medical organisations during Operation Market Garden
Operation Market Garden
Operation Market Garden was an unsuccessful Allied military operation, fought in the Netherlands and Germany in the Second World War. It was the largest airborne operation up to that time....

, No 2 FAU cared for a colony for the mentally ill near Cleves in Germany which grew to a population of 25,000. By April, the main work had become the accommodation and care of displaced persons until they could return home. No 2 FAU was heavily involved with the care and support of inmates at the newly liberated Stalag X-B
Stalag X-B
Stalag X-B was a World War II German Prisoner-of-war camp located near Sandbostel in north-western Germany. Sandbostel lies 9 km south of Bremervörde, 43 km northeast of Bremen. Placed on swampy ground,with a damp, cold climate, it is one of the most notorious prisoner-of-war camps. Between...

 prisoner-of-war camp near Sandbostel
Sandbostel
Sandbostel is a municipality in Lower Saxony in northwestern Germany, 43 km north-east of Bremen, 60 km west of Hamburg. Coordinates: 53° 25′ N, 9° 8′ E. Population: 816...

, between Bremen and Hamburg
Hamburg
-History:The first historic name for the city was, according to Claudius Ptolemy's reports, Treva.But the city takes its modern name, Hamburg, from the first permanent building on the site, a castle whose construction was ordered by the Emperor Charlemagne in AD 808...

 in northern Germany in May 1945.

The FAU was wound up in 1946 and replaced by the Friends Ambulance Unit Post-War Service, which continued until 1959.

The work of the Friends' Ambulance Unit was referred to in the 1947 award of the Nobel Peace Prize
Nobel Peace Prize
The Nobel Peace Prize is one of the five Nobel Prizes bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor Alfred Nobel.-Background:According to Nobel's will, the Peace Prize shall be awarded to the person who...

 to Quakers worldwide and accepted by the Friends Service Council and the American Friends Service Committee
American Friends Service Committee
The American Friends Service Committee is a Religious Society of Friends affiliated organization which works for peace and social justice in the United States and around the world...

.

Purpose

The original trainees in the 1939 training camp issued a statement expressing their purpose:

We purpose to train ourselves as an efficient Unit to undertake ambulance and relief work in areas under both civilian and military control, and so, by working as a pacifist and civilian body where the need is greatest, to demonstrate the efficacy of co-operating to build up a new world rather than fighting to destroy the old.

While respecting the views of those pacifists who feel they cannot join an organization such as our own, we feel concerned among the bitterness and conflicting ideologies of the present situation to build up a record of goodwill and positive service, hoping that this will help to keep uppermost in men's minds those values which are so often forgotten in war and immediately afterwards.

People associated with the FAU

  • Horace Alexander
    Horace Alexander
    Horace Gundry Alexander was an English Quaker teacher and writer, pacifist and ornithologist. He was the youngest of four sons of Joseph Gundry Alexander...

     (1889–1989), barrister and advocate of international arbitration (ODNB entry)
  • Laurie Baker
    Laurie Baker
    Laurence Wilfred "Laurie" Baker was an award-winning British-born Indian architect, renowned for his initiatives in cost-effective energy-efficient architecture and for his unique space utilisation and simple but beautiful aesthetic sensibility...

     (1917–2007), architect,
  • Frank Blackaby (1921–2000), economist and peace campaigner (ODNB entry)
  • Russell Brain, 1st Baron Brain
    Russell Brain, 1st Baron Brain
    Walter Russell Brain, 1st Baron Brain was a British neurologist. He was principal author of the standard work of neurology, Brain's Diseases of the Nervous System, and longtime editor of the eponymous neurological medical journal titled Brain...

     (1895–1966), physician and medical administrator (ODNB entry)
  • Edgar Kenneth Brown, (1918–1965), architect
  • Sir John Bevan Braithwaite (1884–1973), stockbroker (ODNB entry)
  • Richard Bevan Braithwaite
    R. B. Braithwaite
    Richard Bevan Braithwaite was an English philosopher who specialized in the philosophy of science, ethics, and the philosophy of religion. He was a lecturer in moral science at the University of Cambridge from 1934 to 1953, then Knightbridge Professor of Moral Philosophy there from 1953 to 1967...

     (1900–1990), philosopher (ODNB entry)
  • Laurence John Cadbury (1889–1982), chocolate and food manufacturer (ODNB entry)
  • Cecil John Cadoux (1883–1947), theologian (ODNB entry)
  • Demetrios Capetanakis
    Demetrios Capetanakis
    Demetrios Capetanakis or Kapetanakis or Capetanaces was a Greek poet, essayist and critic. For the last five years of his life he lived in Britain, and wrote some poetry in English....

     (1912–1944), poet and literary critic (ODNB entry)
  • Sydney Carter
    Sydney Carter
    Sydney Bertram Carter was an English poet, songwriter, folk musician, born in Camden Town, London. He is best known for the song "Lord of the Dance" , set to the tune of the American Shaker song "Simple Gifts", and the song "The Crow on the Cradle", adapted from an old folk song...

     (1915–2004), English poet, songwriter
  • St John Pettifor Catchpool (1890–1971), social worker (ODNB entry)
  • Selby Clewer
    Selby Clewer
    Selby James Clewer was an English Architect.Born in Morton, Shropshire, with his father a policeman, he spent his childhood in many different areas in the Midlands. His mother died in 1918...

     (1917–2001), architect
  • Alan Clodd
    Alan Clodd
    Alan Clodd was an Irish publisher, book collector, and dealer. Edward Clodd was his grandfather. Born in Dublin, Ireland, Clodd went to Bishop's Stortford College and later worked with the insurance firm Scottish Widows. During World War II he was a conscientious objector and worked with the...

     (1918–2002), publisher, book collector, and dealer
  • Stephen Pit Corder (1918–1990), university professor (ODNB entry)
  • Ralph Henry Carless Davis
    Ralph Henry Carless Davis
    Ralph Henry Carless Davis , always known publicly as R. H. C. Davis, was a British historian specialising in the European Middle Ages...

     (1918–1991), historian
  • John Done
  • Christopher Prout Driver (1932–1997), journalist and writer on food (ODNB entry)
  • Theodore Fox (1899–1989), medical editor (ODNB entry)
  • Gerald Gardiner, Baron Gardiner
    Gerald Gardiner, Baron Gardiner
    Gerald Austin Gardiner, Baron Gardiner, CH, QC, PC , was a British Labour politician, who served as Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain from 1964 to 1970 and during that time he introduced into British law as many reforms as any Lord Chancellor had done before or since...

     (1900–1990), Lord Chancellor from 1964 to 1970
  • Ruth Harrison
    Ruth Harrison
    Ruth Harrison was a leading British animal welfare activist and author.In 1964 she published Animal Machines which describes intensive poultry and livestock farming. The book was said to have exposed the whole reality of intensive farming...

     (1920–2000), animal welfare campaigner (ODNB entry)
  • W. F. Harvey
    W. F. Harvey
    William Fryer Harvey was an English writer of short stories, most notably in the mystery and horror genres. Among his better-known stories are "August Heat" and "The Beast with Five Fingers"....

     (1885–1937), writer of short stories
  • F. R. G. Heaf
    F. R. G. Heaf
    Professor Frederick Roland George Heaf was a British physician.He was born in Desborough, Northamptonshire, England. He attended the University of Cambridge and St Thomas' Hospital as a medical student. He followed a career in Public health and became a Professor at the University of Wales in 1949...

     (1894–1973), physician (ODNB entry)
  • John Hick
    John Hick
    Professor John Harwood Hick is a philosopher of religion and theologian. In philosophical theology, he has made contributions in the areas of theodicy, eschatology, and Christology, and in the philosophy of religion he has contributed to the areas of epistemology of religion and religious...

     (born 1922), philosopher of religion
  • Eric Holttum (1895–1990), botanist (ODNB entry)
  • Kenneth Hudson
    Kenneth Hudson
    Kenneth Hudson OBE, MA, FSA was an industrial archaeologist, museologist, broadcaster and author.-Early career:...

     (1916–1999), industrial archaeologist and museologist (ODNB entry)
  • F. R. Leavis
    F. R. Leavis
    Frank Raymond "F. R." Leavis CH was an influential British literary critic of the early-to-mid-twentieth century. He taught for nearly his entire career at Downing College, Cambridge.-Early life:...

     (1895–1978), literary critic

  • Frank Lees
    Frank Lees
    Francis Pearson Lees , known as Frank Lees, was a chemical engineer and a Professor at Loughborough University who is noted for his contribution to the field of industrial safety.-Education:Lees was born in Hexham, Northumberland...

     (1931–1999), chemical engineer
  • Kingsley Martin
    Kingsley Martin
    Basil Kingsley Martin was a British journalist who edited the left-leaning political magazine the New Statesman from 1930 to 1960....

     (1897–1969), journalist
  • Henry Woodd Nevinson (1856–1941), social activist and journalist (ODNB entry)
  • George Newman (doctor)
    George Newman (doctor)
    Sir George Newman GBE, KCB was an English public health physician, Quaker, the first Chief Medical Officer to the Ministry of Health in England, and wrote a seminal treatise on the social problems causing infant mortality.-Introduction:George Newman was educated at Sidcot School in North Somerset ...

     (1870–1948), public health physician
  • Donald Nicol
    Donald Nicol
    Donald MacGillivray Nicol FBA, MRIA was a British Byzantinist.- Life :Nicol was born to a Church of Scotland minister, and received a classical education at King Edward VII School in Sheffield and St Paul's School in London...

     (1923–2003), British Byzantinist
  • Philip Noel-Baker
    Philip Noel-Baker, Baron Noel-Baker
    by Philip Noel-Baker with other authorsby others* Lloyd, Lorna: Philip Noel-Baker and the Peace Through Law in -External links:...

     (1889–1982), politician, diplomat, academic
  • Wilfrid Noyce
    Wilfrid Noyce
    Cuthbert Wilfrid Francis Noyce was an English mountaineer and author...

     (1917–1962), mountaineer and writer (ODNB entry)
  • Robert Nye
    Robert Nye
    Robert Nye FRSL is an English poet who has also written novels and plays as well as stories for children. His bestselling novel Falstaff published in 1976 was described by Michael Ratcliffe as 'one of the most ambitious and seductive novels of the decade,' and went on to win both The Hawthornden...

     (1936 - ), writer
  • Lionel Penrose
    Lionel Penrose
    Lionel Sharples Penrose, FRS was a British psychiatrist, medical geneticist, mathematician and chess theorist, who carried out pioneering work on the genetics of mental retardation. He was educated at the Quaker Leighton Park School and St...

     (1898–1972), physician (ODNB entry)
  • Roland Penrose
    Roland Penrose
    Sir Roland Algernon Penrose CBE was an English artist, historian and poet. He was a major promoter and collector of modern art and an associate of the surrealists in the United Kingdom.- Biography :...

     (1900–1984), artist, writer, and exhibition organizer (ODNB entry)
  • Arthur Cecil Pigou
    Arthur Cecil Pigou
    Arthur Cecil Pigou was an English economist. As a teacher and builder of the school of economics at the University of Cambridge he trained and influenced many Cambridge economists who went on to fill chairs of economics around the world...

     (1877–1959), economist and mountaineer
  • John Rawlings Rees
    John Rawlings Rees
    John Rawlings Rees OBE MD RAMC was a wartime and civilian psychiatrist and became a brigadier in the British Army. He was a member of the group of key figures at the original Tavistock Clinic and became its medical director from 1934...

     (1890–1969), psychiatrist (ODNB entry)
  • Lewis Fry Richardson
    Lewis Fry Richardson
    Lewis Fry Richardson, FRS   was an English mathematician, physicist, meteorologist, psychologist and pacifist who pioneered modern mathematical techniques of weather forecasting, and the application of similar techniques to studying the causes of wars and how to prevent them...

     (1881–1953), mathematician, physicist, meteorologist, psychologist
  • Michael Rowntree
    Michael Rowntree
    Michael Rowntree was a co-founder of the Friends' Ambulance Unit in the Second World War, a journalist, and Chairman of Oxfam for 6 years....

     (1919–2007), a journalist and Chairman of Oxfam
  • George William Series (1920–1995), spectroscopist (ODNB entry)
  • Olaf Stapledon
    Olaf Stapledon
    William Olaf Stapledon was a British philosopher and author of several influential works of science fiction.-Life:...

     (1886–1950), philosopher and author of science fiction
  • Peter Derek Strevens (1922–1989), linguistic scholar and applied linguist (ODNB entry)
  • Donald Swann
    Donald Swann
    Donald Ibrahím Swann was a British composer, musician and entertainer. He is best known to the general public for his partnership of writing and performing comic songs with Michael Flanders .-Life:...

     (1923–1994), composer, musician and entertainer
  • Frederick Tattersfield (1881–1959), agricultural chemist (ODNB entry)
  • Lewis Edgar Waddilove (1914–2000), social reformer (ODNB entry)
  • Richard Wainwright (1918–2003), Liberal MP
  • John Seldon Whale (1896–1997), United Reformed church minister and theologian (ODNB entry)
  • Herbert George Wood (1879–1963), theologian and historian (ODNB entry)
  • Geoffrey Winthrop Young
    Geoffrey Winthrop Young
    Geoffrey Winthrop Young D.Litt. was a British climber, poet and educator, and author of several notable books on mountaineering.-Mountaineering:...

     (1876–1958), mountaineer, poet and educator


Records

Much archival material has survived and has been deposited at Friends House Library, Euston Road
Euston Road
Euston Road is an important thoroughfare in central London, England, and forms part of the A501. It is part of the New Road from Paddington to Islington, and was opened as part of the New Road in 1756...

, London. The Library has produced Guides to the material:
  • Conscientious Objectors and the Peace Movement in Britain 1914-1945 .
  • Friends Ambulance Unit (1939–1959) .

See also

  • Conscientious objector#United Kingdom
  • Conscientious objection throughout the world#Conscientious objection in Britain
  • Conscription
    Conscription
    Conscription is the compulsory enlistment of people in some sort of national service, most often military service. Conscription dates back to antiquity and continues in some countries to the present day under various names...

  • Military Service Act
    Military Service Act (United Kingdom)
    The Military Service Act 1916 was an Act passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom during the First World War. It was the first time that legislation had been passed in British military history introducing conscription...

  • Military recruitment#Military recruitment in the United Kingdom
  • World War I
    World War I
    World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...

  • World War II
    World War II
    World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...


External links

The source of this article is wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.  The text of this article is licensed under the GFDL.
 
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