Europeanism
Encyclopedia
Although this term is occasionally used to describe support for European integration
(and thus anti-Europeanism
is, by extension, sometimes used to describe hostility to integration), it is more commonly used in relation to the idea that Europeans have common norms and values that transcend national or state identity, that have been promoted most actively (if not always necessarily consciously) by the building of the European Union
, and that can help us understand the way Europeans approach politics, economics and society, and that give Europeans a distinctive identity.
s in London, Berlin, Paris, Rome, Madrid and other cities. The philosophers Jürgen Habermas
and Jacques Derrida
were inspired to write an article for the newspaper Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung
in which they claimed the birth of a ‘European public sphere’. They argued that new values and habits had given contemporary Europe ‘its own face’, and saw an opportunity for the construction of a ‘core Europe’ (excluding Britain and Eastern Europe) that might be a counterweight to the United States. Attempting to explain what Europe represented, they listed six facets of what they described as a common European ‘political mentality’:
European integration
European integration is the process of industrial, political, legal, economic integration of states wholly or partially in Europe...
(and thus anti-Europeanism
Anti-Europeanism
Anti-Europeanism refers to rejection of the culture of Europe and Europeanisation, sentiments, opinions and discrimination against European ethnic groups, and criticism of policies of European governments and the European Union...
is, by extension, sometimes used to describe hostility to integration), it is more commonly used in relation to the idea that Europeans have common norms and values that transcend national or state identity, that have been promoted most actively (if not always necessarily consciously) by the building of the European Union
European Union
The European Union is an economic and political union of 27 independent member states which are located primarily in Europe. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community , formed by six countries in 1958...
, and that can help us understand the way Europeans approach politics, economics and society, and that give Europeans a distinctive identity.
Recent arguments
A new assessment of Europeanism was sparked by the events leading up to the March 2003 invasion of Iraq. Widespread public opposition in every major European country (even those such as Britain, Italy, and Spain, whose governments supported the invasion) prompted the February 15, 2003 anti-war protestFebruary 15, 2003 anti-war protest
The February 15, 2003 anti-war protest was a coordinated day of protests across the world expressing opposition to the then-imminent Iraq War. It was part of a series of protests and political events that had begun in 2002 and continued as the war took place....
s in London, Berlin, Paris, Rome, Madrid and other cities. The philosophers Jürgen Habermas
Jürgen Habermas
Jürgen Habermas is a German sociologist and philosopher in the tradition of critical theory and pragmatism. He is perhaps best known for his theory on the concepts of 'communicative rationality' and the 'public sphere'...
and Jacques Derrida
Jacques Derrida
Jacques Derrida was a French philosopher, born in French Algeria. He developed the critical theory known as deconstruction and his work has been labeled as post-structuralism and associated with postmodern philosophy...
were inspired to write an article for the newspaper Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung
Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung
The Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung , short F.A.Z., also known as the FAZ, is a national German newspaper, founded in 1949. It is published daily in Frankfurt am Main. The Sunday edition is the Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung .F.A.Z...
in which they claimed the birth of a ‘European public sphere’. They argued that new values and habits had given contemporary Europe ‘its own face’, and saw an opportunity for the construction of a ‘core Europe’ (excluding Britain and Eastern Europe) that might be a counterweight to the United States. Attempting to explain what Europe represented, they listed six facets of what they described as a common European ‘political mentality’:
- SecularizationSecularizationSecularization is the transformation of a society from close identification with religious values and institutions toward non-religious values and secular institutions...
. - Trust in the stateSovereign stateA sovereign state, or simply, state, is a state with a defined territory on which it exercises internal and external sovereignty, a permanent population, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other sovereign states. It is also normally understood to be a state which is neither...
and scepticism about the achievements of markets. - Realistic expectations about technological progress.
- WelfarismWelfarismWelfarism is a form of consequentialism. Like all forms of consequentialism, welfarism is based on the premise that actions, policies, and/or rules should be evaluated on the basis of their consequences. Welfarism is the view that the morally significant consequences are impacts on human welfare...
. - A low threshold of tolerance for the use of force.
- MultilateralismMultilateralismMultilateralism is a term in international relations that refers to multiple countries working in concert on a given issue.International organizations, such as the United Nations and the World Trade Organization are multilateral in nature...
within the framework of a reformed United NationsUnited NationsThe United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...
.
Expanding the idea
A new study by political scientist John McCormick expands on these ideas, and identifies the following as core attributes of Europeanism:- The decline of identification with the state, the rediscovery of national identities (while repudiating state-based nationalism), and a rethinking of the meaning of citizenshipCitizenshipCitizenship is the state of being a citizen of a particular social, political, national, or human resource community. Citizenship status, under social contract theory, carries with it both rights and responsibilities...
and patriotismPatriotismPatriotism is a devotion to one's country, excluding differences caused by the dependencies of the term's meaning upon context, geography and philosophy...
. In regard to the latter, pride in country is being replaced with pride in ideas, otherwise known as constitutional patriotismConstitutional patriotismConstitutional patriotism is a concept associated with the German philosopher Jürgen Habermas, yet originating from political scientist Dolf Sternberger. He used it first as the heading of the leader for German national newspaper Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung of 23 May 1979 - the day the German...
. Identification with nations or states is being increasingly joined with identification with Europe.
- CosmopolitanismCosmopolitanismCosmopolitanism is the ideology that all human ethnic groups belong to a single community based on a shared morality. This is contrasted with communitarian and particularistic theories, especially the ideas of patriotism and nationalism...
, or an association with universal ideas, and a belief that that all Europeans, and possibly even all humans, belong to a single moral community that transcends state boundaries or national identities. The local and the global cannot be separated or divorced.
- CommunitarianismCommunitarianismCommunitarianism is an ideology that emphasizes the connection between the individual and the community. That community may be the family unit, but it can also be understood in a far wider sense of personal interaction, of geographical location, or of shared history.-Terminology:Though the term...
, which - in contrast to the liberal emphasis on individual rights - supports a balance between individual and community interests, emphasizing the responsibilities of government to all those who live under its jurisdiction. Europeanism argues that society may sometimes be a better judge of what is good for individuals rather than vice versa.
- The collective society. Europeanism emphasizes the view that societal divisions will occur in spite of attempts to ensure equal opportunity, and accepts the role of the state as an economic manager and as a guarantor of societal welfare.
- WelfarismWelfarismWelfarism is a form of consequentialism. Like all forms of consequentialism, welfarism is based on the premise that actions, policies, and/or rules should be evaluated on the basis of their consequences. Welfarism is the view that the morally significant consequences are impacts on human welfare...
, or a reference to Europeanist ideas that while individual endeavour is to be welcomed, applauded and rewarded, the community has a responsibility for working to ensure that the playing field is as level as possible, and that opportunity and wealth are equitably distributed. Europeanism emphasizes equality of results over equality of opportunity.
- Sustainable developmentSustainable developmentSustainable development is a pattern of resource use, that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for generations to come...
, or the belief that development should be sustainable, meeting the needs of the present without compromising the needs of future generations.
- Redefining the familyFamilyIn human context, a family is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity, or co-residence. In most societies it is the principal institution for the socialization of children...
. The place of the European family is changing, with fewer Europeans opting to marry, their ages at marriage rising, their divorce rates growing, their fertility rates declining, more children are being born outside marriage, and single-parent households becoming more usual.
- Working to live. Post-material Europeans are working fewer hours, are doing more with those hours, and have developed family-friendly laws and policies.
- Criminal rights. In matters of criminal justiceCriminal justiceCriminal Justice is the system of practices and institutions of governments directed at upholding social control, deterring and mitigating crime, or sanctioning those who violate laws with criminal penalties and rehabilitation efforts...
, Europeanism means a greater emphasis on individual rights, and a preference for resolving disputes through negotiation rather than confrontation through the law.
- MulticulturalismMulticulturalismMulticulturalism is the appreciation, acceptance or promotion of multiple cultures, applied to the demographic make-up of a specific place, usually at the organizational level, e.g...
, in which Europe has a long and often overlooked tradition arising from the diversity of European societies, and a Europeanist habit of integrating core values and features from new groups with which its dominant cultures have come into contact. This has been challenged of late by the increased racial and religious diversity of Europe.
- SecularismSecularismSecularism is the principle of separation between government institutions and the persons mandated to represent the State from religious institutions and religious dignitaries...
is probably the one quality most clearly associated with Europe: while religion continues to grow in most of the rest of the world, in Europe its role is declining, and it plays an increasingly marginal role in politics and public life, while heavily influencing Europeanist attitudes towards science and towards public policies in which religious belief plays a role.
- Opposition to capital punishmentCapital punishmentCapital punishment, the death penalty, or execution is the sentence of death upon a person by the state as a punishment for an offence. Crimes that can result in a death penalty are known as capital crimes or capital offences. The term capital originates from the Latin capitalis, literally...
. This is prohibited in all European UnionEuropean UnionThe European Union is an economic and political union of 27 independent member states which are located primarily in Europe. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community , formed by six countries in 1958...
and Council of EuropeCouncil of EuropeThe Council of Europe is an international organisation promoting co-operation between all countries of Europe in the areas of legal standards, human rights, democratic development, the rule of law and cultural co-operation...
member states, and European governments have worked to achieve a global moratorium as a first step towards its worldwide abolition.
- Perpetual peacePerpetual peacePerpetual peace refers to a state of affairs where peace is permanently established over a certain area .Many would-be world conquerors have promised that their rule would enforce perpetual peace...
. Where once Europe was a region of near constant war, conflict and political violence, it is today a region of generalized peace, and one which has made much progress along the path to achieving the Kantian condition of perpetual peace. Inter-state war in the region is all but unthinkable.
- MultilateralismMultilateralismMultilateralism is a term in international relations that refers to multiple countries working in concert on a given issue.International organizations, such as the United Nations and the World Trade Organization are multilateral in nature...
. Europeanism has eschewed national self interest in favour of cooperation and consensus, of the promotion of values rather than interests, of reliance on international rules and agreements, and of building coalitions and working through international organizations to resolve problems.