Ephedra is a
genusIn biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...
of
gymnospermThe gymnosperms are a group of seed-bearing plants that includes conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and Gnetales. The term "gymnosperm" comes from the Greek word gymnospermos , meaning "naked seeds", after the unenclosed condition of their seeds...
shrubA shrub or bush is distinguished from a tree by its multiple stems and shorter height, usually under 5–6 m tall. A large number of plants may become either shrubs or trees, depending on the growing conditions they experience...
s, the only genus in its family,
Ephedraceae, and order,
Ephedrales.
Ephedra grows in dry climates over wide areas of the
northern hemisphereThe Northern Hemisphere is the half of a planet that is north of its equator—the word hemisphere literally means “half sphere”. It is also that half of the celestial sphere north of the celestial equator...
, including southwestern
North AmericaNorth America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...
,
EuropeEurope is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
, north
AfricaAfrica is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
, and southwest and central
AsiaAsia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area and with approximately 3.879 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population...
, and, in the
southern hemisphereThe Southern Hemisphere is the part of Earth that lies south of the equator. The word hemisphere literally means 'half ball' or "half sphere"...
, in
South AmericaSouth America is a continent situated in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. The continent is also considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east...
south to
PatagoniaPatagonia is a region located in Argentina and Chile, integrating the southernmost section of the Andes mountains to the southwest towards the Pacific ocean and from the east of the cordillera to the valleys it follows south through Colorado River towards Carmen de Patagones in the Atlantic Ocean...
. In temperate climates, most
Ephedra species grow on shores or in sandy soils with direct sun exposure. Common names in English include
Joint-pine,
Jointfir,
Mormon-tea or
Brigham Tea. The
ChineseThe Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
name is
mahuang .
Ephedra is also sometimes called sea grape (from the French
raisin de mer), a common name for the flowering plant
Coccoloba uviferaCoccoloba uvifera is a species of flowering plant in the buckwheat family, Polygonaceae, that is native to coastal beaches throughout tropical America and the Caribbean, including southern Florida, the Bahamas, Barbados and Bermuda...
.
Medical uses
Plants of the
Ephedra genus, including
E. sinica and others, have traditionally been used by indigenous people for a variety of medicinal purposes, including treatment of
asthmaAsthma is the common chronic inflammatory disease of the airways characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction, and bronchospasm. Symptoms include wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and shortness of breath...
,
hay feverHay Fever is a comic play written by Noël Coward in 1924 and first produced in 1925 with Marie Tempest as the first Judith Bliss. Laura Hope Crews played the role in New York...
, and the
common coldThe common cold is a viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory system, caused primarily by rhinoviruses and coronaviruses. Common symptoms include a cough, sore throat, runny nose, and fever...
. The
alkaloidAlkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Also some synthetic compounds of similar structure are attributed to alkaloids...
s
ephedrineEphedrine is a sympathomimetic amine commonly used as a stimulant, appetite suppressant, concentration aid, decongestant, and to treat hypotension associated with anaesthesia....
and
pseudoephedrinePseudoephedrine is a sympathomimetic drug of the phenethylamine and amphetamine chemical classes. It is used as a nasal/sinus decongestant and stimulant, or as a wakefulness-promoting agent....
are active constituents of
E. sinica and other members of the genus. These compounds are
sympathomimeticsSympathomimetic drugs mimic the effects of transmitter substances of the sympathetic nervous system such as catecholamines, epinephrine , norepinephrine , dopamine, etc...
with
stimulantStimulants are psychoactive drugs which induce temporary improvements in either mental or physical function or both. Examples of these kinds of effects may include enhanced alertness, wakefulness, and locomotion, among others...
and
decongestantA decongestant or nasal decongestant is a type of drug that is used to relieve nasal congestion.-Pharmacology:The vast majority of decongestants act via enhancing norepinephrine and epinephrine or adrenergic activity by stimulating the α-adrenergic receptors...
qualities and are related chemically to the
amphetamineAmphetamine or amfetamine is a psychostimulant drug of the phenethylamine class which produces increased wakefulness and focus in association with decreased fatigue and appetite.Brand names of medications that contain, or metabolize into, amphetamine include Adderall, Dexedrine, Dextrostat,...
s.
Pollen of
Ephedra spp. was found in the Shanidar IV burial site in Iraq, suggesting its use as a medicinal plant dates to over 60,000 years ago. It has been suggested that
Ephedra may be the
SomaSoma , or Haoma , from Proto-Indo-Iranian *sauma-, was a ritual drink of importance among the early Indo-Iranians, and the subsequent Vedic and greater Persian cultures. It is frequently mentioned in the Rigveda, whose Soma Mandala contains 114 hymns, many praising its energizing qualities...
plant of Indo-Iranian religion.
Species
- Ephedra alata
Ephedra alata is a species of Ephedra that is native from Morocco and the Sahara in northern Africa, the Middle East and Western Asia, to Central Asia and Southwest Asia. It was originally described by Joseph Decaisne in 1834 and placed in section Alatae, tribe Tropidolepides by Otto Stapf in...
Decne
- Ephedra altissima
Ephedra altissima is a species of Ephedra that is native to northern Africa. It was originally described by René Louiche Desfontaines in 1799 and placed in section Pseudobaccatae , "tribe" Scandentes. In 1996 Robert A. Price classified E. altissima in section Ephedra without recognizing a tribe....
Desf.
- Ephedra americana Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.
- Ephedra antisyphilitica Berl. ex C.A.Meyer – Clapweed, Erect Ephedra
- Ephedra aspera
Ephedra aspera is a species of Ephedra known by the common names rough jointfir, boundary ephedra, and pitamoreal. It is native to the southwestern United States from California to Texas and parts of northern Mexico. It is a resident of varied woodland and scrub plant communities...
Engelm. ex S.Wats. – Boundary Ephedra, Pitamoreal
- Ephedra boelckei
Ephedra boelckei is a species of Ephedra that is native to Argentina. It was originally described by Fidel Antonio Roig in 1984. It has been placed in section Alatae....
F.A.Roig
- Ephedra californica
Ephedra californica is a species of Ephedra known by the common names California jointfir, California ephedra, desert tea, and cañatillo. It is native to southern California, Arizona, and Baja California, where it grows in varied scrub and open habitats, including chaparral and grassland...
S.Wats. – California Ephedra, California Jointfir
- Ephedra campylopoda C.A.Mey.
- Ephedra chilensis C.Presl.
- Ephedra ciliata Fisch. ex C.A.Mey.
- Ephedra coryi E.L.Reed – Cory's Ephedra
- Ephedra cutleri
Ephedra cutleri is a species of Ephedra that is native the Southwestern United States. It was originally described by Robert Hibbs Peebles in 1940. It was placed in section Asarca....
Peebles – Navajo Ephedra, Cutler's Ephedra, Cutler Mormon-tea, Cutler's Jointfir
- Ephedra dahurica Turcz.
- Ephedra distachya
Ephedra distachya is a shrub in the family Ephedraceae, about 25 cm to 50 cm high, that grows in southern Europe and parts of western and central Asia. Its local names include somlatha.-Uses:...
L. – Joint-pine, Jointfir
- Ephedra distachya subsp. distachya
- Ephedra distachya subsp. helvetica (C.A.Meyer) Aschers. & Graebn.
- Ephedra distachya subsp. monostachya (L.) Riedl
- Ephedra equisetina Bunge – Ma huang
- Ephedra fasciculata
Ephedra fasciculata is a species of plant in the Ephedraceae family. Common names are Arizona Ephedra, Arizona Jointfir, and Desert Mormon-tea.Varieties:*Ephedra fasciculata var. clokeyi Clokey...
A.Nels. – Arizona Ephedra, Arizona Jointfir, Desert Mormon-tea
- Ephedra fedtschenkoae Pauls.
- Ephedra foliata
Ephedra foliata is a species of Ephedra that is native to the Middle East and central Asia, from Egypt to India. It was originally described by Pierre Edmond Boissier, later validly published by Carl Anton von Meyer in 1846, and placed in section Pseudobaccatae , "tribe" Scandentes by Otto Stapf in...
Boiss. ex C.A.Mey.
- Ephedra fragilis
Ephedra fragilis is a species of Ephedra that is native to Mediterranean Europe and Northern Africa. It was originally described by René Louiche Desfontaines in 1799 and placed in section Pseudobaccatae , "tribe" Scandentes by Otto Stapf in 1889. In 1996 Robert A. Price classified E. fragilis...
Desf.
- Ephedra fragilis subsp. campylopoda (C.A.Meyer) Aschers. & Graebn.
- Ephedra frustillata
Ephedra frustillata, the Patagonian ephedra, is a plant species in the genus Ephedra found in Patagonia.E. frustillata contains apigeninidin, a 3-deoxyanthocyanidin.-External links:*...
Miers – Patagonian Ephedra |
Ephedra funerea Ephedra funerea is a species of Ephedra known by the common name Death Valley jointfir, or Death Valley ephedra. It is native to the Mojave Desert of California and Nevada. This shrub is made up of erect twigs which are gray-green when new and age to gray and cracked. There are tiny leaves at nodes...
Coville & Morton – Death Valley Ephedra, Death Valley Jointfir
Ephedra gerardiana Wallich ex C.A.Meyer – Gerard's Jointfir, Shan Ling Ma Huang
Ephedra holopteraEphedra holoptera is a species of Ephedra that is native to Iran. It was originally described by Harald Udo von Riedl in 1963. It has been placed in section Alatae....
Riedl
Ephedra intermediaEphedra intermedia is a species of Ephedra that is native to Southwest and Central Asia. It was originally described by Alexander Gustav von Schrenk and Carl Anton von Meyer in 1846 and placed in section Pseudobaccatae , "tribe" Pachycladae by Otto Stapf in 1889. In 1996 Robert A...
Schrenk ex C.A.Meyer
Ephedra lepidosperma C.Y.Cheng
Ephedra likiangensis Florin
Ephedra lomatolepisEphedra lomatolepis is a species of Ephedra that is native to central Asia. It was originally described by Alexander Gustav von Schrenk in 1844. Otto Stapf's worldwide monograph on the genus included this species, but Stapf did not place it in a section. Later, it was placed in section Alatae....
Shrenk
Ephedra macedonica Kos.
Ephedra major Host
- Ephedra major subsp. procera Fischer & C.A.Meyer
Ephedra minuta Florin
Ephedra monosperma C.A.Meyer
Ephedra multifloraEphedra multiflora is a species of Ephedra that is native to northern Chile and Argentina. It was originally described by Rodolfo Armando Philippi, later formally published by Otto Stapf in 1887, and placed in section Alatae, "tribe" Habrolepides by Stapf in 1889. In 1996 Robert A. Price left...
Phil. ex Stapf
Ephedra nevadensisEphedra nevadensis is a species of Ephedra native to dry areas of western North America.Its range extends west to California and Oregon, east to Texas, and south to Mexico, including areas of the Great Basin, Colorado plateau and desert Southwest...
S.Wats. – Nevada Ephedra, Nevada Jointfir, Nevada Mormon-tea
Ephedra pachyclada Boiss.
Ephedra pedunculata Engelm. ex S.Wats. – Vine Ephedra, Vine Jointfir
Ephedra procera Fisch. & C. A. Mey.
Ephedra przewalskiiEphedra przewalskii is a species of Ephedra that is native to northwestern China and Mongolia. It was originally described by Otto Stapf in 1889 and placed in section Alatae, tribe Tropidolepides. In 1996 Robert A. Price left E. przewalskii in section Alatae without recognizing a tribe....
Stapf
- Ephedra przewalskii var. kaschgarica (B.Fedtsch. & Bobr.) C.Y.Cheng
Ephedra regeliana Florin – Xi Zi Ma Huang
Ephedra saxatilis (Stapf) Royle ex Florin
Ephedra sinica Stapf – Cao Ma Huang, Chinese ephedra
Ephedra strobilaceaEphedra strobilacea is a species of Ephedra that is native to central Asia west to Afghanistan. It was originally described by Alexander G. von Bunge in 1851 and placed in section Alatae, tribe Tropidolepides by Otto Stapf in 1889. In 1996 Robert A. Price left E. strobilacea in section Alatae...
Bunge
Ephedra torreyanaEphedra torreyana is a species of Ephedra that is native to the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico. It was originally described by Sereno Watson in 1879 and placed in section Alatae, "tribe" Habrolepides by Otto Stapf in 1889. In 1996 Robert A. Price left E. torreyana in section...
S.Wats. – Torrey's Ephedra, Torrey's Jointfir, Torrey's Mormon-tea, Cañutillo
Ephedra trifurcaEphedra trifurca is a species of Ephedra known by the common names longleaf jointfir and Mexican tea. It is native to many of the northern states of Mexico and the southwestern United States, where it is a resident of desert scrub plant communities.This sprawling shrub may approach two meters in...
Torrey ex S.Wats. – Longleaf Ephedra, Longleaf Jointfir, Longleaf Mormon-tea, Popotilla, Teposote
Ephedra viridisEphedra viridis is a species of Ephedra known by the common names green ephedra and green Mormon tea. It is native to the western United States, where it is a member of varied scrub, woodland, and open habitats.-Description:...
Coville – Green Ephedra, Green Mormon-tea |
Economic botany and alkaloid content
Earliest uses of
Ephedra spp. (Ma Huang) for specific illnesses date back to 5000 BC.
EphedrineEphedrine is a sympathomimetic amine commonly used as a stimulant, appetite suppressant, concentration aid, decongestant, and to treat hypotension associated with anaesthesia....
and isomers were already isolated in 1881 from
Ephedra dystachia and characterized by the
JapaneseThe are an ethnic group originating in the Japanese archipelago and are the predominant ethnic group of Japan. Worldwide, approximately 130 million people are of Japanese descent; of these, approximately 127 million are residents of Japan. People of Japanese ancestry who live in other countries...
organic chemist Nagai Nagayoshi of the 19th century. His work to access
Ephedra drug materials to isolate a pure pharmaceutical substance, and the systematic production of semi-synthetic
derivativeIn calculus, a branch of mathematics, the derivative is a measure of how a function changes as its input changes. Loosely speaking, a derivative can be thought of as how much one quantity is changing in response to changes in some other quantity; for example, the derivative of the position of a...
s thereof is relevant still today as the three species
Ephedra sinica,
Ephedra vulgaris and to a lesser extend
Ephedra equisetina are commercially grown in
Mainland ChinaMainland China, the Chinese mainland or simply the mainland, is a geopolitical term that refers to the area under the jurisdiction of the People's Republic of China . According to the Taipei-based Mainland Affairs Council, the term excludes the PRC Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and...
as a source for natural ephedrines and isomers for use in
pharmacyPharmacy is the health profession that links the health sciences with the chemical sciences and it is charged with ensuring the safe and effective use of pharmaceutical drugs...
. The application of botanical extracts from Ma Huang as a
stimulantStimulants are psychoactive drugs which induce temporary improvements in either mental or physical function or both. Examples of these kinds of effects may include enhanced alertness, wakefulness, and locomotion, among others...
and anorexic drug has no validity in either TCM or modern Western
medicineMedicine is the science and art of healing. It encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness....
.
E. sinica and
E. vulgaris carry usually six optically active phenylethylamines, mostly
ephedrineEphedrine is a sympathomimetic amine commonly used as a stimulant, appetite suppressant, concentration aid, decongestant, and to treat hypotension associated with anaesthesia....
and
pseudoephedrinePseudoephedrine is a sympathomimetic drug of the phenethylamine and amphetamine chemical classes. It is used as a nasal/sinus decongestant and stimulant, or as a wakefulness-promoting agent....
with minor amounts of norephedrine, norpseudoephedrine as well as the three methylated analogs. Reliable information on the total alkaloid content of the crude drug is difficult to obtain. Based on HPLC analyses in industrial settings, the concentrations of total alkaloids in dried
Herba Ephedra ranged between 1 to 4%, and in some cases up to 6%.
For a review of the
alkaloidAlkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Also some synthetic compounds of similar structure are attributed to alkaloids...
distribution in different species of the
genusIn biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...
Ephedra see Jian-fang Cui (1991). Other American and European species of
Ephedra, e.g.
Ephedra nevadensisEphedra nevadensis is a species of Ephedra native to dry areas of western North America.Its range extends west to California and Oregon, east to Texas, and south to Mexico, including areas of the Great Basin, Colorado plateau and desert Southwest...
(Mormon tea) have not been systematically assayed; based on unpublished field investigations, they contain very low levels (less than 0.1%) or none at all.
Cultural reference
Represents the provincial flower of
Balochistan (Pakistan)Balochistan is one of the four provinces or federating units of Pakistan. With an area of 134,051 mi2 or , it is the largest province of Pakistan, constituting approximately 44% of the total land mass of Pakistan. According to the 1998 population census, Balochistan had a population of...
(unofficial).
External links