England Air Force Base
Encyclopedia
For the civil use of this facility after 1992, see Alexandria International Airport

England Air Force Base (1942–1992) is a former United States Air Force
United States Air Force
The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on September 18, 1947 under the National Security Act of...

 base in Louisiana
Louisiana
Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States of America. Its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the only state in the U.S. with political subdivisions termed parishes, which are local governments equivalent to counties...

, located 5 miles (8 km) Northwest of Alexandria
Alexandria, Louisiana
Alexandria is a city in and the parish seat of Rapides Parish, Louisiana, United States. It lies on the south bank of the Red River in almost the exact geographic center of the state. It is the principal city of the Alexandria metropolitan area which encompasses all of Rapides and Grant parishes....

 and about 170 miles (273.6 km) Northwest of New Orleans.

Originally known as Alexandria Army Air Base, on 23 June 1955 the facility was renamed England Air Force Base in honor of Lt Col John Brooke England
John B. England
John Brooke England was a World War II fighter ace in the 357th Fighter Group and a career fighter pilot in the United States Air Force.-Biography:...

 (1923–1954). A leading and much-decorated North American P-51 Mustang ace during World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...

, Colonel England flew 108 missions and scored 19 aerial victories-including 4 on one mission. England also served as a combat pilot in the Korean War
Korean War
The Korean War was a conventional war between South Korea, supported by the United Nations, and North Korea, supported by the People's Republic of China , with military material aid from the Soviet Union...

. He was killed in a crash near Toul-Rosieres Air Base
Toul-Rosieres Air Base
Toul-Rosières Air Base is a reserve French Air Force base. It is located in the Meurthe-et-Moselle département of France, 10 miles northeast of the city of Toul, on the west side of the Route nationale 411 Highway about one mile southeast of Rosières-en-Haye.Toul Air Base was used by American...

, France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...

 on 17 November 1954 when he banked away from a barracks area while landing his North American F-86 Sabre in a dense fog. He was on a rotational tour from Alexandria AFB with the 389th Fighter Bomber Squadron, which he commanded.

History

The base was opened on 21 October 1942 and during World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...

 performed Boeing
Boeing
The Boeing Company is an American multinational aerospace and defense corporation, founded in 1916 by William E. Boeing in Seattle, Washington. Boeing has expanded over the years, merging with McDonnell Douglas in 1997. Boeing Corporate headquarters has been in Chicago, Illinois since 2001...

 B-17 Flying Fortress aircrew training. It was placed on inactive status on September 23, 1946, although a small cadre of Army and Air Force personnel (331 Comps Squadron) remained assigned to Alexandria Municipal Airport throughout the late 1940s.

On 10 October 1950, the United States Air Force reopened Alexandria Air Force Base during the Korean War
Korean War
The Korean War was a conventional war between South Korea, supported by the United Nations, and North Korea, supported by the People's Republic of China , with military material aid from the Soviet Union...

. The station's primary mission was tactical fighter operations for Tactical Air Command
Tactical Air Command
Tactical Air Command is an inactive United States Air Force organization. It was a Major Command of the United States Air Force, established on 21 March 1946 being headquartered at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia...

.

Its major operating units were:
  • United States Army Air Force
67th Airdrome Sq, 1 February 1943 – 25 March 1943
471st Bombardment Group, 1 May 1943 – 7 May 1943
469th Bombardment Group, 7 May 1943 – 1 April 1944
221st AAF Base Unit, 25 March 1944 – 1 March 1945
329th AAF Base Unit, 1 March 1945 – 23 September 1946

  • United States Air Force
    United States Air Force
    The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on September 18, 1947 under the National Security Act of...

4416th Base Complement Sq, 23 October 1950 – 22 December 1950

137th Fighter-Bomber Wing
137th Air Refueling Wing
The United States Air Force's 137th Air Refueling Wing is an Oklahoma Air National Guard wing located at Will Rogers Air National Guard base, Oklahoma. The wing flies KC-135 Stratotankers....

, 22 December 1950 – 2 May 1952
Composite Air National Guard
Air National Guard
The Air National Guard , often referred to as the Air Guard, is the air force militia organized by each of the fifty U.S. states, the commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the territories of Guam and the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the District of Columbia of the United States. Established under Title 10 and...

 wing activated to Federal Service due to Korean War
Korean War
The Korean War was a conventional war between South Korea, supported by the United Nations, and North Korea, supported by the People's Republic of China , with military material aid from the Soviet Union...


Flew Republic F-84 "Thunderjets"
F-84 Thunderjet
The Republic F-84 Thunderjet was an American turbojet fighter-bomber aircraft. Originating as a 1944 United States Army Air Forces proposal for a "day fighter", the F-84 flew in 1946...

. Three operational squadrons 125th (Oklahoma ANG, F-84B/G, 127th (Kansas ANG F-84C/G), 128th (Georgia ANG, F-84B/G)). ANG personnel trained at Alexandria AFB 1950/51, being replaced by active duty Air Force personnel in 1951/52. Wing reassigned to USAFE at Chaumont-Semoutiers Air Base, France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...


132d Fighter-Bomber Wing, 2 May 1952 – 1 January 1953
Iowa ANG Wing activated to Federal Service replacing reassigned 137th FBW

One operational squadron (124th FIS). Flew Republic F-84Fs. Returned to state control.

366th Fighter-Bomber Wing
366th Fighter Wing
The 366th Fighter Wing is a Fighter Wing of the United States Air Force Air Combat Command stationed at Mountain Home Air Force Base, Idaho...

, 1 January 1953 – 1 April 1959
Active duty Air Force wing activated at Alexandria AFB. Three operational squadrons (389th
389th Fighter Squadron
The 389th Fighter Squadron is part of the 366th Fighter Wing at Mountain Home Air Force Base, Idaho. It operates F-15E Strike Eagle aircraft conducting close air support missions.-Mission:...

, 390th
390th Fighter Squadron
The 390th Fighter Squadron is part of the 366th Fighter Wing at Mountain Home Air Force Base, Idaho. It operates F-15C Eagle aircraft conducting an air superiority mission.-History:...

, 391st
391st Fighter Squadron
The 391st Fighter Squadron is part of the 366th Fighter Wing at Mountain Home Air Force Base, Idaho. It operates F-15E Strike Eagle aircraft conducting close air support missions.-Mission:...

) being initially equipped with North American F-51D/H Mustang, reequipped with North American F-86F "Sabre" jet aircraft by end of 1953.

Wing became first TAC unit to perform six-month TDY rotations with NATO at Aviano AB, Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...

, with rotations continuing to support NATO in France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...

 and Italy. Redesignated 366th Tactical Fighter Wing 1 July 1958. Inactivated 1 April 1959 as part of a general budgetary reduction of USAF wings. Aircraft transferred to Air National Guard
Air National Guard
The Air National Guard , often referred to as the Air Guard, is the air force militia organized by each of the fifty U.S. states, the commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the territories of Guam and the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the District of Columbia of the United States. Established under Title 10 and...

.

420th Air Refueling Squadron (Tactical)
420 Flight Test Flight
The 420th Flight Test Flight is a United States Air Force Reserve squadron based at Phoenix-Mesa Gateway Airport Arizona, assigned to the 413th Flight Test Group at Robins AFB, Georgia....

, 18 March 1954 – 4 October 1955
(Activated at England AFB, equipped with Boeing KB-29P.

First unit in TAC of its type. Provided TAC with independent air refueling capability. Reassigned to USAFE at RAF Sculthorpe
RAF Sculthorpe
RAF Sculthorpe is a military training facility for the United Kingdom's Ministry of Defence, situated about west of Fakenham in Norfolk, England...

, England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...

.

622d Air Refueling Squadron (Tactical), 18 July 1955 – 1 April 1964
Activated at England AFB, assigned to 4505th Air Refueling Wing, Langley AFB, Virginia
Virginia
The Commonwealth of Virginia , is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" after the eight U.S. presidents born there...

 1 July 1958.

Equipped with Boeing KB-29P (1955–57), later turbojet-augmented Boeing KB-50J
B-50 Superfortress
The Boeing B-50 Superfortress strategic bomber was a post-World War II revision of the Boeing B-29 Superfortress, fitted with more powerful Pratt & Whitney R-4360 radial engines, stronger structure, a taller fin, and other improvements. It was the last piston-engined bomber designed by Boeing for...

 (1957–64) aircraft. Aircraft became obsolescent and unit deactivated 1 April 1964.

401st Tactical Fighter Wing
401st Air Expeditionary Wing
The United States Air Force's 401st Air Expeditionary Wing is an inactive unit of the United States Air Force. Its last assignment was with the Sixteenth Air Force, being stationed at RAF Akrotiri, Cyprus...

, 1 April 1959 – 27 April 1966
Activated from former 366th TFW personnel assets, re-equipped with North American F-100 "Super Sabre"
F-100 Super Sabre
The North American F-100 Super Sabre was a supersonic jet fighter aircraft that served with the United States Air Force from 1954 to 1971 and with the Air National Guard until 1979. The first of the Century Series collection of USAF jet fighters, it was the first USAF fighter capable of...

 aircraft.

Four tactical fighter squadrons (612th, 613th, 614th, 615th) redesignated from former 366th TFW units. Participated in numerous firepower demonstrations, tactical exercises and maneuvers in the United States and overseas, and deployed its tactical squadrons to bases in Europe and the Middle East in support of NATO. Deployed to Homestead AFB, Florida
Florida
Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...

 during Cuban Missile Crisis
Cuban Missile Crisis
The Cuban Missile Crisis was a confrontation among the Soviet Union, Cuba and the United States in October 1962, during the Cold War...

 (1962) as tactical airstrike unit. Wing designation along with 613th TFS reassigned to USAFE at Torrejon Air Base
Torrejon Air Base
Madrid-Torrejón Airport is a commercial airport in Spain. It is a joint-use facility between the Spanish Ministry of Defence and the Ministry of Public Works. The civil part is dedicated primarily to executive and private aviation. The airport is located northeast of Madrid, west of Alcalá de...

, Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...

.

3d Tactical Fighter Wing
3d Wing
The 3d Wing is a unit of the United States Air Force, assigned to the Pacific Air Forces Eleventh Air Force. It is stationed at Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, Alaska....

, 9 January 1964 – 7 November 1965
Reassigned from Yokota AB, Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...

, Equipped with F-100 Super Sabres.

Three tactical fighter squadrons (416th, 510th
510th Fighter Squadron
The 510th Fighter Squadron is part of the 31st Operations Group at Aviano Air Base, Italy. It is a combat-ready F-16CM fighter squadron prepared to deploy and fly combat sorties as tasked by NATO and US combatant commanders...

, 531st). Moved to the United States without personnel or equipment, then trained and rotated its squadrons in detached status to Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, South-East Asia, South East Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. The region lies on the intersection of geological plates, with heavy seismic...

 for combat duty. Reassigned to Bien Hoa AB
Bien Hoa Air Base
Bien Hoa Air Base is a Vietnam People's Air Force military airfield located in South-Central southern Vietnam about 20 miles from Saigon near the city of Bien Hoa within Dong Nai Province....

, South Vietnam
South Vietnam
South Vietnam was a state which governed southern Vietnam until 1975. It received international recognition in 1950 as the "State of Vietnam" and later as the "Republic of Vietnam" . Its capital was Saigon...

.

834th Air Division, 1 July 1964 – 15 October 1966
Assumed command and control over 3d and 401st Tactical Fighter Wings.

After reassignment of wings, assumed remaining organization and operational squadrons of former 401st TFW. Deployed to South Vietnamese bases (834th AD to Tan Son Nhut AB
Tan Son Nhut Air Base
Tan Son Nhut Air Base was a Republic of Vietnam Air Force facility. It is located near the city of Saigon in southern Vietnam. The United States used it as a major base during the Vietnam War , stationing Army, Air Force, Navy, and Marine units there...

), (612th, 614th, 615th) TFS to Phan Rang AB, Phu Cat AB).

1st Air Commando/Special Operations Wing 15 January 1966 – 15 July 1969
317th, 319th Air Commando/Special Operations Squadrons

Reassigned from Hurlburt Field
Hurlburt Field
Hurlburt Field is a U.S. Air Force installation located in Okaloosa County, Florida, immediately west of the Town of Mary Esther. It is part of the greater Eglin Air Force Base reservation, and is home to Headquarters Air Force Special Operations Command , the 1st Special Operations Wing , the...

 Florida
Florida
Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...

. Redesignated 1st SOW 8 July 1968. Reassigned to Hurlburt Field, Florida.

4410th Combat Crew Training Wing/Group 15 July 1969 – 31 July 1973
6th Special Operations Training Squadron
6th Special Operations Squadron
The 6th Special Operations Squadron is part of the 1st Special Operations Wing at Hurlburt Field, Florida. It is a combat aviation advisory unit....

, 427th, 4412th, 4532d Combat Crew Training Squadrons

Wing reassigned from Hurlburt Field
Hurlburt Field
Hurlburt Field is a U.S. Air Force installation located in Okaloosa County, Florida, immediately west of the Town of Mary Esther. It is part of the greater Eglin Air Force Base reservation, and is home to Headquarters Air Force Special Operations Command , the 1st Special Operations Wing , the...

 Florida
Florida
Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...

. Redesignated as Group, 15 September 1970. Inactivated July 1973 due to US withdrawal from South Vietnam. Upon group inactivation, 6th SOTS reassigned to 1st SOW at Hurlburt Field but remained at England AFB until deactivation, January 1974.

4403d Tactical Fighter Wing, 15 September 1970 – 1 July 1972
416th Tactical Fighter Squadron 28 September 1970 – 1 July 1972

Absorbed returning North American F-100 Super Saber
F-100 Super Sabre
The North American F-100 Super Sabre was a supersonic jet fighter aircraft that served with the United States Air Force from 1954 to 1971 and with the Air National Guard until 1979. The first of the Century Series collection of USAF jet fighters, it was the first USAF fighter capable of...

 aircraft of 31st TFW from Tuy Hoa Air Base
Tuy Hoa Air Base
Tuy Hoa Air Base is a former air force base in Vietnam, being closed in 1970. It was built by the United States between 1965-1966 and was used by the United States Air Force during the Vietnam War in the II Corps Tactical Zone of South Vietnam. It was seized by the Vietnam People's Army in April...

 South Vietnam
South Vietnam
South Vietnam was a state which governed southern Vietnam until 1975. It received international recognition in 1950 as the "State of Vietnam" and later as the "Republic of Vietnam" . Its capital was Saigon...

 and transferred assets to Air National Guard
Air National Guard
The Air National Guard , often referred to as the Air Guard, is the air force militia organized by each of the fifty U.S. states, the commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the territories of Guam and the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the District of Columbia of the United States. Established under Title 10 and...

. Acted as holding unit for arriving Ling-Temco-Vought A-7D Corsair II
A-7 Corsair II
The Ling-Temco-Vought A-7 Corsair II is a carrier-based subsonic light attack aircraft introduced to replace the United States Navy's Douglas A-4 Skyhawk, initially entering service during the Vietnam War...

 aircraft starting April 1972.

23d Tactical Fighter (later Fighter) Wing, 1 July 1972 – 1 June 1992
Wing reactivated at station w/p/o/e taking over organization and assets of temporary 4403d TFW designation.

Three A-7D tactical fighter (74th
74th Fighter Squadron
The 74th Fighter Squadron ' is a United States Air Force unit. It is assigned to the 23d Fighter Group and stationed at Moody Air Force Base, Georgia....

, 75th
75th Fighter Squadron
The 75th Fighter Squadron ' is a United States Air Force unit. It is assigned to the 23d Fighter Group and stationed at Moody Air Force Base, Georgia....

, 76th
76th Fighter Squadron
The 76th Fighter Squadron ' is a United States Air Force Reserve unit. It is assigned to the 476th Fighter Group and stationed at Moody Air Force Base, Georgia....

) squadrons formed. Re-equipped with Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II
A-10 Thunderbolt II
The Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II is an American single-seat, twin-engine, straight-wing jet aircraft developed by Fairchild-Republic in the early 1970s. The A-10 was designed for a United States Air Force requirement to provide close air support for ground forces by attacking tanks,...

 1981. Redesignated 23d Fighter Wing 1 October 1991. Inactivated 1 June 1992.


In October 1990, the Base Realignment and Closure
Base Realignment and Closure
Base Realignment and Closure is a process of the United States federal government directed at the administration and operation of the Armed Forces, used by the United States Department of Defense and Congress to close excess military installations and realign the total asset inventory to reduce...

 Commission decided that England Air Force Base would be closed by September 1992. A drawdown of equipment and personnel began almost immediately. The 23d Fighter Wing's A-10
A-10 Thunderbolt II
The Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II is an American single-seat, twin-engine, straight-wing jet aircraft developed by Fairchild-Republic in the early 1970s. The A-10 was designed for a United States Air Force requirement to provide close air support for ground forces by attacking tanks,...

 aircraft were sent to Air National Guard
Air National Guard
The Air National Guard , often referred to as the Air Guard, is the air force militia organized by each of the fifty U.S. states, the commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the territories of Guam and the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the District of Columbia of the United States. Established under Title 10 and...

 units, and EAFB was closed 1 June 1992.

During the period of its military use, Air Force units from England Air Force Base served in combat in World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...

, the Vietnam War
Vietnam War
The Vietnam War was a Cold War-era military conflict that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. This war followed the First Indochina War and was fought between North Vietnam, supported by its communist allies, and the government of...

 and Operation Desert Storm.

Air Defense Command

Alexandria (and later England) AFB was base for Air Defense Command interceptor and radar units along the Gulf Coast. In 1959, the 332d Fighter-Interceptor Squadron
332d Fighter-Interceptor Squadron
The 332d Fighter-Interceptor Squadron is an inactive United States Air Force unit. Its last assignment was with the 4683rd Air Defense Wing, stationed at Thule AB, Greenland. It was inactivated on May 31, 1965.-History:...

, assigned to the 32d Air Division stationed F-102 Delta Dagger
F-102 Delta Dagger
The Convair F-102 Delta Dagger was a US interceptor aircraft built as part of the backbone of the United States Air Force's air defenses in the late 1950s. Entering service in 1956, its main purpose was to intercept invading Soviet bomber fleets...

 interceptors at the base between 1959-1960.

In addition to the fighter-interceptor squadron, England AFB part of the planned deployment by Air Defense Command of forty-four Mobile radar stations across the United States to support the permanent Radar network established during the Cold War
Cold War
The Cold War was the continuing state from roughly 1946 to 1991 of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the Communist World—primarily the Soviet Union and its satellite states and allies—and the powers of the Western world, primarily the United States...

 for air defense of the United States. This deployment had been projected to be operational by mid-1952. Funding, constant site changes, construction, and equipment delivery delayed deployment.

On 1 November 1954 the 653d Aircraft Control and Warning Squadron
653d Aircraft Control and Warning Squadron
The 653d Aircraft Control and Warning Squadron is an inactive United States Air Force unit. It was last assigned to the Oklahoma City Air Defense Sector, Air Defense Command, stationed at England Air Force Base, Louisiana...

 began operations at Alexandria AFB with the activation of AN/MPS-14, AN/TPS-1D, and AN/TPS-10D radars. The site was designated as M-125, and initially the station functioned as a Ground-Control Intercept (GCI) and warning station. As a GCI station, the squadron's role was to guide interceptor aircraft toward unidentified intruders picked up on the unit's radar scopes. The AN/MPS-14 continued to operate until site closure in 1963. In 1958 the site was operating an AN/FPS-20 search set.

In addition to the main facility, Air Defense Command operated three AN/FPS-18 Gap Filler sites:
  • Delhi, LA (M-125A): 32°19′40"N 091°33′25"W
  • Weeks Island, LA (M-125C): 29°48′34"N 091°48′22"W
  • Lake Charles GFA, LA (M-125D): 30°11′05"N 093°10′30"W


England AFB was a planned Semi Automatic Ground Environment
Semi Automatic Ground Environment
The Semi-Automatic Ground Environment was an automated control system for tracking and intercepting enemy bomber aircraft used by NORAD from the late 1950s into the 1980s...

 (SAGE) Data Center (DC) location, for the also-planned Shreveport Air-Defense Sector (ShADS). However, in March 1963 Air Defense Command ordered the site to close due to budget reductions and operations ceased on April 23.

The station was picked up by the Federal Aviation Administration
Federal Aviation Administration
The Federal Aviation Administration is the national aviation authority of the United States. An agency of the United States Department of Transportation, it has authority to regulate and oversee all aspects of civil aviation in the U.S...

 (FAA) after the ADC shut down operations. The site is still in operations using the FPS-20A, being known as Alexandria, Louisiana. Virtually all other parts of this old Air Force radar station have been removed. A golf course now occupies part of the old M-125 site.

See also


External links

The source of this article is wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.  The text of this article is licensed under the GFDL.
 
x
OK