Endothelium
Encyclopedia
The endothelium is the thin layer of cells
that lines the interior surface of blood vessel
s, forming an interface between circulating blood
in the lumen
and the rest of the vessel wall. These cells are called endothelial cells. Endothelial cells line the entire circulatory system
, from the heart
to the smallest capillary
. These cells reduce turbulence
of the flow of blood, allowing the fluid to be pumped farther.
Endothelial tissue is an epithelial tissue.
The endothelium normally provides a non-thrombogenic surface because it contains heparan sulfate
which acts as a cofactor
for activating antithrombin III, a protease that inactivates several factors in the coagulation cascade.
rather than keratin
filaments separate these from epithelial cells.
Endothelium of the interior surfaces of the heart chambers are called endocardium
. Both blood and lymphatic capillaries are composed of a single layer of endothelial cells called a monolayer.
In some organs, there are highly differentiated endothelial cells to perform specialized 'filtering' functions. Examples of such unique endothelial structures include the renal glomerulus and the blood-brain barrier
.
, or the loss of proper endothelial function, is a hallmark for vascular diseases, and is often regarded as a key early event in the development of atherosclerosis
. Impaired endothelial function is often seen in patients with coronary artery disease, diabetes mellitus
, hypertension
, hypercholesterolemia
, as well as in smokers. Endothelial dysfunction has also been shown to be predictive of future adverse cardiovascular events. One of the main mechanisms of endothelial dysfunction is the diminishing of nitric oxide
, often due to high levels of asymmetric dimethylarginine
, which interfere with the normal L-arginine
-stimulated nitric oxide synthesis
. The most prevailing mechanism of endothelial dysfunction is an increase in reactive oxygen species
, which can impair nitric oxide production and activity via several mechanisms. The signalling protein ERK5 is essential for maintaining normal endothelial cell function.. A further consequence of damage to the endothelium
is the release of pathological quantities of von Willebrand factor
, which promote platelet aggregation and adhesion to the subendothelium, and thus the formation of potentially fatal thrombi.
Cell (biology)
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
that lines the interior surface of blood vessel
Blood vessel
The blood vessels are the part of the circulatory system that transports blood throughout the body. There are three major types of blood vessels: the arteries, which carry the blood away from the heart; the capillaries, which enable the actual exchange of water and chemicals between the blood and...
s, forming an interface between circulating blood
Blood
Blood is a specialized bodily fluid in animals that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells....
in the lumen
Lumen (anatomy)
A lumen in biology is the inside space of a tubular structure, such as an artery or intestine...
and the rest of the vessel wall. These cells are called endothelial cells. Endothelial cells line the entire circulatory system
Circulatory system
The circulatory system is an organ system that passes nutrients , gases, hormones, blood cells, etc...
, from the heart
Heart
The heart is a myogenic muscular organ found in all animals with a circulatory system , that is responsible for pumping blood throughout the blood vessels by repeated, rhythmic contractions...
to the smallest capillary
Capillary
Capillaries are the smallest of a body's blood vessels and are parts of the microcirculation. They are only 1 cell thick. These microvessels, measuring 5-10 μm in diameter, connect arterioles and venules, and enable the exchange of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and many other nutrient and waste...
. These cells reduce turbulence
Turbulence
In fluid dynamics, turbulence or turbulent flow is a flow regime characterized by chaotic and stochastic property changes. This includes low momentum diffusion, high momentum convection, and rapid variation of pressure and velocity in space and time...
of the flow of blood, allowing the fluid to be pumped farther.
Endothelial tissue is an epithelial tissue.
The endothelium normally provides a non-thrombogenic surface because it contains heparan sulfate
Heparan sulfate
Heparan sulfate is a linear polysaccharide found in all animal tissues. It occurs as a proteoglycan in which two or three HS chains are attached in close proximity to cell surface or extracellular matrix proteins...
which acts as a cofactor
Cofactor (biochemistry)
A cofactor is a non-protein chemical compound that is bound to a protein and is required for the protein's biological activity. These proteins are commonly enzymes, and cofactors can be considered "helper molecules" that assist in biochemical transformations....
for activating antithrombin III, a protease that inactivates several factors in the coagulation cascade.
Terminology
The foundational model of anatomy makes a distinction between endothelial cells and epithelial cells on the basis of which tissues they develop from, and states that the presence of vimentinVimentin
Vimentin is a type III intermediate filament protein that is expressed in mesenchymal cells. IF proteins are found in all metazoan cells as well as bacteria. IF, along with tubulin-based microtubules and actin-based microfilaments, comprise the cytoskeleton...
rather than keratin
Keratin
Keratin refers to a family of fibrous structural proteins. Keratin is the key of structural material making up the outer layer of human skin. It is also the key structural component of hair and nails...
filaments separate these from epithelial cells.
Endothelium of the interior surfaces of the heart chambers are called endocardium
Endocardium
The endocardium is the innermost layer of tissue that lines the chambers of the heart. Its cells are embryologically and biologically similar to the endothelial cells that line blood vessels....
. Both blood and lymphatic capillaries are composed of a single layer of endothelial cells called a monolayer.
Function
Endothelial cells are involved in many aspects of vascular biology, including:- AtherosclerosisAtherosclerosisAtherosclerosis is a condition in which an artery wall thickens as a result of the accumulation of fatty materials such as cholesterol...
- Barrier functionBarrier functionIn constrained optimization, a field of mathematics, a barrier function is a continuous function whose value on a point increases to infinity as the point approaches the boundary of the feasible region . It is used as a penalizing term for violations of constraints...
- the endothelium acts as a selective barrier between the vessel lumen and surrounding tissue, controlling the passage of materials and the transit of white blood cellWhite blood cellWhite blood cells, or leukocytes , are cells of the immune system involved in defending the body against both infectious disease and foreign materials. Five different and diverse types of leukocytes exist, but they are all produced and derived from a multipotent cell in the bone marrow known as a...
s into and out of the bloodstream. Excessive or prolonged increases in permeability of the endothelial monolayer, as in cases of chronic inflammation, may lead to tissue oedema/swelling. - Blood clottingCoagulationCoagulation is a complex process by which blood forms clots. It is an important part of hemostasis, the cessation of blood loss from a damaged vessel, wherein a damaged blood vessel wall is covered by a platelet and fibrin-containing clot to stop bleeding and begin repair of the damaged vessel...
(thrombosisThrombosisThrombosis is the formation of a blood clot inside a blood vessel, obstructing the flow of blood through the circulatory system. When a blood vessel is injured, the body uses platelets and fibrin to form a blood clot to prevent blood loss...
& fibrinolysisFibrinolysisFibrinolysis is a process that prevents blood clots from growing and becoming problematic. This process has two types: primary fibrinolysis and secondary fibrinolysis...
) - InflammationInflammationInflammation is part of the complex biological response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. Inflammation is a protective attempt by the organism to remove the injurious stimuli and to initiate the healing process...
- Formation of new blood vessels (angiogenesisAngiogenesisAngiogenesis is the physiological process involving the growth of new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels. Though there has been some debate over terminology, vasculogenesis is the term used for spontaneous blood-vessel formation, and intussusception is the term for the formation of new blood...
) - VasoconstrictionVasoconstrictionVasoconstriction is the narrowing of the blood vessels resulting from contraction of the muscular wall of the vessels, particularly the large arteries, small arterioles and veins. The process is the opposite of vasodilation, the widening of blood vessels. The process is particularly important in...
and vasodilationVasodilationVasodilation refers to the widening of blood vessels resulting from relaxation of smooth muscle cells within the vessel walls, particularly in the large arteries, smaller arterioles and large veins. The process is essentially the opposite of vasoconstriction, or the narrowing of blood vessels. When...
, and hence the control of blood pressureBlood pressureBlood pressure is the pressure exerted by circulating blood upon the walls of blood vessels, and is one of the principal vital signs. When used without further specification, "blood pressure" usually refers to the arterial pressure of the systemic circulation. During each heartbeat, BP varies...
In some organs, there are highly differentiated endothelial cells to perform specialized 'filtering' functions. Examples of such unique endothelial structures include the renal glomerulus and the blood-brain barrier
Blood-brain barrier
The blood–brain barrier is a separation of circulating blood and the brain extracellular fluid in the central nervous system . It occurs along all capillaries and consists of tight junctions around the capillaries that do not exist in normal circulation. Endothelial cells restrict the diffusion...
.
Pathology
Endothelial dysfunctionEndothelial dysfunction
Endothelial dysfunction is a systemic pathological state of the endothelium and can be broadly defined as an imbalance between vasodilating and vasoconstricting substances produced by the endothelium...
, or the loss of proper endothelial function, is a hallmark for vascular diseases, and is often regarded as a key early event in the development of atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis is a condition in which an artery wall thickens as a result of the accumulation of fatty materials such as cholesterol...
. Impaired endothelial function is often seen in patients with coronary artery disease, diabetes mellitus
Diabetes mellitus
Diabetes mellitus, often simply referred to as diabetes, is a group of metabolic diseases in which a person has high blood sugar, either because the body does not produce enough insulin, or because cells do not respond to the insulin that is produced...
, hypertension
Hypertension
Hypertension or high blood pressure is a cardiac chronic medical condition in which the systemic arterial blood pressure is elevated. What that means is that the heart is having to work harder than it should to pump the blood around the body. Blood pressure involves two measurements, systolic and...
, hypercholesterolemia
Hypercholesterolemia
Hypercholesterolemia is the presence of high levels of cholesterol in the blood. It is not a disease but a metabolic derangement that can be caused by many diseases, notably cardiovascular disease...
, as well as in smokers. Endothelial dysfunction has also been shown to be predictive of future adverse cardiovascular events. One of the main mechanisms of endothelial dysfunction is the diminishing of nitric oxide
Nitric oxide
Nitric oxide, also known as nitrogen monoxide, is a diatomic molecule with chemical formula NO. It is a free radical and is an important intermediate in the chemical industry...
, often due to high levels of asymmetric dimethylarginine
Asymmetric dimethylarginine
Asymmetric dimethylarginine is a naturally occurring chemical found in blood plasma. It is a metabolic by-product of continual protein modification processes in the cytoplasm of all human cells. It is closely related to L-arginine, a conditionally-essential amino acid...
, which interfere with the normal L-arginine
Arginine
Arginine is an α-amino acid. The L-form is one of the 20 most common natural amino acids. At the level of molecular genetics, in the structure of the messenger ribonucleic acid mRNA, CGU, CGC, CGA, CGG, AGA, and AGG, are the triplets of nucleotide bases or codons that codify for arginine during...
-stimulated nitric oxide synthesis
Nitric oxide synthase
Nitric oxide synthases are a family of enzymes that catalyze the production of nitric oxide from L-arginine. NO is an important cellular signaling molecule, having a vital role in many biological processes...
. The most prevailing mechanism of endothelial dysfunction is an increase in reactive oxygen species
Reactive oxygen species
Reactive oxygen species are chemically reactive molecules containing oxygen. Examples include oxygen ions and peroxides. Reactive oxygen species are highly reactive due to the presence of unpaired valence shell electrons....
, which can impair nitric oxide production and activity via several mechanisms. The signalling protein ERK5 is essential for maintaining normal endothelial cell function.. A further consequence of damage to the endothelium
Endothelium
The endothelium is the thin layer of cells that lines the interior surface of blood vessels, forming an interface between circulating blood in the lumen and the rest of the vessel wall. These cells are called endothelial cells. Endothelial cells line the entire circulatory system, from the heart...
is the release of pathological quantities of von Willebrand factor
Von Willebrand factor
von Willebrand factor is a blood glycoprotein involved in hemostasis. It is deficient or defective in von Willebrand disease and is involved in a large number of other diseases, including thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura, Heyde's syndrome, and possibly hemolytic-uremic syndrome...
, which promote platelet aggregation and adhesion to the subendothelium, and thus the formation of potentially fatal thrombi.
See also
- ApelinApelinApelin is a peptide that in humans is encoded by the APLN gene. Apelin is the endogenous ligand for the G-protein-coupled APJ receptor that is expressed at the surface of some cell types...
- CaveolaeCaveolaeIn biology, caveolae , which are a special type of lipid raft, are small invaginations of the plasma membrane in many vertebrate cell types, especially in endothelial cells and adipocytes....
- EndocardiumEndocardiumThe endocardium is the innermost layer of tissue that lines the chambers of the heart. Its cells are embryologically and biologically similar to the endothelial cells that line blood vessels....
- Endothelial microparticleEndothelial microparticleEndothelial microparticles are small vesicles that are released from endothelial cells and can be found circulating in the blood. The microparticle consists of a plasma membrane surrounding a small amount of cytosol...
s - Endothelial progenitor cellEndothelial progenitor cellEndothelial progenitor cells are a population of rare cells that circulate in the blood with the ability to differentiate into endothelial cells, the cells that make up the lining of blood vessels. The process by which blood vessels are born de novo from endothelial progenitor cells is known as...
s - Endothelium-derived relaxing factorEndothelium-derived relaxing factorEndothelium-derived relaxing factor is produced and released by the endothelium to promote smooth muscle relaxation. The best-characterized is nitric oxide . Some sources equate EDRF and nitric oxide....
(EDRF) - Robert F. FurchgottRobert F. FurchgottRobert Francis Furchgott was a Nobel Prize-winning American biochemist.Furchgott was born in Charleston, SC, to Arthur Furchgott and Pena Sorentrue Furchgott...
(1998 Nobel prize for discovery of EDRF) - Platelet activation
- Susac's syndromeSusac's syndromeSusac's syndrome is a microangiopathy characterized by encephalopathy, branch retinal artery occlusions and hearing loss. It is caused by the immune system attacking healthy tissue, and can lead to mental disorders....
- Tunica intimaTunica intimaThe tunica intima is the innermost layer of an artery or vein. It is made up of one layer of endothelial cells and is supported by an internal elastic lamina...
- VE-cadherinVE-cadherinCadherin 5, type 2 or VE-cadherin also known as CD144 , is a type of cadherin...
- Weibel-Palade bodiesWeibel-Palade bodyWeibel-Palade bodies are the storage granules of endothelial cells, the cells that form the inner lining of the blood vessels and heart. They store and release two principal molecules, von Willebrand factor and P-selectin, and thus play a dual role in hemostasis and inflammation...
External links
, "Capillaries, non-fenestrated (EM, Low)"- Endothelium Journal of Endothelial Cell Research, Informa Healthcare
- Endothelium and inflammation
- Platelet Activation, University of WashingtonUniversity of WashingtonUniversity of Washington is a public research university, founded in 1861 in Seattle, Washington, United States. The UW is the largest university in the Northwest and the oldest public university on the West Coast. The university has three campuses, with its largest campus in the University...