Eastern religion is a term used to refer to religionA religion is a system of human thought which usually includes a set of narratives, symbols, beliefs and practices that give meaning to the practitioner's experiences of life through reference to a higher power, deity or deities, or ultimate truth...
s originating in the Eastern worldThe term Eastern world refers very broadly to the various cultures, social structures and philosophical systems of "the East", namely Asia and Eastern Europe ....
—IndiaThe Indian subcontinent, also Indian Subcontinent and other terms, is a region of the Asian continent on the Indian tectonic plate south of the Himalayas, forming a peninsula which extends southward into the Indian Ocean...
, ChinaChina is a cultural region, an ancient civilization, and, depending on perspective, a national or multinational entity extending over a large area in East Asia....
, Japanis an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, People's Republic of China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
and Southeast AsiaManila
Bangkok
Ho Chi Minh City
Kuala Lumpur
Singapore
Yangon
Bandung
Hanoi
Surabaya
Taichung
Kaohsiung
Medan|-|}...
—and thus have dissimilarities with Western religionThe term Western religion refers to religions that originated within Western culture, and are thus which historically, culturally, and theologically distinct from the Eastern religions...
s. This includes the East AsianIn the study of comparative religion, the East Asian religions form a subset of the Eastern religions...
and Indian religious traditions, as well as animisticAnimism is a philosophical, religious or spiritual idea that souls or spirits exist not only in humans but also in other animals, plants, rocks, natural phenomena such as thunder, geographic features such as mountains or rivers, or other entities of the natural environment, a proposition also...
indigenous religions.
The terms Eastern and Western religion are largely synonymous with Dharmic religion and Abrahamic religion, respectively.{{Dubious|date=May 2009}} However this East-West religious distinction, just as with the East West-Conceptual use:*East-West dichotomy, the contrast between Eastern and Western society or culture.*East-West Schism, the division of Chalcedonian Christianity into Western Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.-Books, journals and magazines:...
culture distinction, and the implications that arise from it, are broad and not precise. Furthermore the geographical distinction has less meaning in the current context of global transculturationTransculturation is a term coined by Cuban anthropologist Fernando Ortiz in 1947 to describe the phenomenon of merging and converging cultures.-Definition:...
.
While many WesternWestern culture refers to cultures of European origin.The term "Western culture" is used very broadly to refer to a heritage of social norms, ethical values, traditional customs, religious beliefs, political systems, and specific artifacts and technologies...
observers attempt to distinguish between Eastern philosophies and religions, this is a distinction that does not exist in some Eastern traditions.
Indian Religions
{{details|Indian religions}}
Religions originating on the Indian subcontinentThe Indian subcontinent, also Indian Subcontinent and other terms, is a region of the Asian continent on the Indian tectonic plate south of the Himalayas, forming a peninsula which extends southward into the Indian Ocean...
include HinduismHinduism is the predominant religion of the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism is often referred to as ', a Sanskrit phrase meaning "the eternal law", by its adherents. Generic "types" of Hinduism that attempt to accommodate a variety of complex views span folk and Vedic Hinduism to bhakti tradition, as...
, BuddhismBuddhism, as traditionally conceived, is a path of salvation attained through insight into the ultimate nature of reality. It encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha...
, JainismJainism is an ancient dharmic religion from India that prescribes a path of non-violence for all forms of living beings in this world. Its philosophy and practice relies mainly on self-effort in progressing the soul on the spiritual ladder to divine consciousness...
, and SikhismSikhism, founded on the teachings of Guru Nanak Dev and ten successive Sikh Gurus in fifteenth century Punjab, is the fifth-largest organized religion in the world. This system of religious philosophy and expression has been traditionally known as the Gurmat or the Sikh Dharma...
. The theologies and philosophies of these religions have several concepts in common, such as dharmaThe term , is an Indian spiritual and religious term, that means one's righteous duty or any virtuous path in the common sense of the term. A Hindu's Dharma is affected by a person's age, class, occupation, and sex. In Indian languages it can be equivalent simply to "religion", depending on context...
, karmaKarma in Indian religions is the concept of "action" or "deed", understood as that which causes the entire cycle of cause and effect originating in ancient India and treated in Hindu, Jain, Sikh and Buddhist philosophies..'Karma' is an Eastern religious concept in contradistinction to...
, and samsaraSamsara is the endless cycle of suffering caused by birth, death and rebirth within Buddhism, Bön, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and other related religions....
.
Hinduism
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Hinduism originated on the Indian subcontinent. It is considered by some to be the world's oldest extant religion. Hinduism contains a vast body of scriptureScripture is that corpus of literature deemed authoritative for establishing doctrine within any of a number of specific religious traditions, especially the Abrahamic religions.Such bodies of writings are also sometimes known as the canon of scripture...
divided as revealedFor other meanings, see Śruti .' is a term that describes the sacred texts comprising the central canon of Hinduism and is one of the three main sources of dharma and therefore is also influential within Hindu Law...
and rememberedSmṛti , literally "that which is remembered," refers to a specific body of Hindu religious scripture. Smṛti also denotes non-Shruti texts and is generally seen as secondary in authority to Shruti. The literature which comprises the Smriti was composed after the Vedas around 500 BCE...
expounding on dharma, or religious living. Hindus consider the VedasThe Vedas are a large body of texts originating in Ancient India. The texts are composed in Vedic Sanskrit and form the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature, and the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism....
and the Upanishads as being among the foremost in authority, importance and antiquity. The {{IASTThe Bhagavad Gita is one of the most important Hindu scriptures. It is revered as a sacred scripture of Hinduism, and considered as one of the most important philosophical classics of the world. The Bhagavad Gita comprises 700 verses, and is a part of the Mahabharata...
, a treatise excerpted from the {{IAST|Mahābhārata}}, is sometimes called a summary of the spiritual teachings of the Vedas. It is difficult to identify any universal belief or practice in Hinduism, although prominent themes include: DharmaThe term , is an Indian spiritual and religious term, that means one's righteous duty or any virtuous path in the common sense of the term. A Hindu's Dharma is affected by a person's age, class, occupation, and sex. In Indian languages it can be equivalent simply to "religion", depending on context...
, SamsaraSamsara is the endless cycle of suffering caused by birth, death and rebirth within Buddhism, Bön, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and other related religions....
, KarmaKarma in Indian religions is the concept of "action" or "deed", understood as that which causes the entire cycle of cause and effect originating in ancient India and treated in Hindu, Jain, Sikh and Buddhist philosophies..'Karma' is an Eastern religious concept in contradistinction to...
, and MokshaIn Indian religions, Moksha or Mukti , literally "release" , is the liberation from samsara, the cycle of death and rebirth or reincarnation and all of the suffering and limitation of worldly existence after realization of God...
. Hinduism is sometimes called a polytheistic religion, but this is an oversimplification. Hinduism includes a diverse collection of schools whose beliefs span monotheismIn theology, monotheism is the belief that only one god exists. The concept of "monotheism" tends to be dominated by the concept of God in the Abrahamic religions, such as Judaism, Christianity and Islam, and the Platonic concept of God as put forward by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite...
, polytheismPolytheism is the belief in and worship of multiple deities, called gods and goddesses. These are usually assembled into a pantheon, along with their own mythologies and rituals...
, pantheismPantheism is the view that everything is part of an all-encompassing immanent God and that the Universe and God are equivalent...
, monismMonism is any philosophical view which holds that there is unity in a given field of inquiry, where this is not to be expected. Thus, some philosophers may hold that the Universe is really just one thing, despite its many appearances and diversities; or theology may support the view that there is...
and even atheismAtheism or disbelief in God or gods has been a historically propounded viewpoint in many of the ‘heterodox’ and astika streams of Hindu philosophies. -Astika atheism:...
. For instance, the Advaita VedantaAdvaita Vedanta is a sub-school of the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy. Other major sub-schools of Vedānta are Dvaita and . Advaita is a monistic system of thought...
school holds that there is only one causal entity (BrahmanIn the Hindu religion, Brahman is the unchanging, infinite, immanent, and transcendent reality which is the Divine Ground of all matter, energy, time, space, being, and everything beyond in this Universe. The nature of Brahman is described as transpersonal, personal and impersonal by different...
), which manifests itself to humans in multiple forms, whereas traditions such as VaishnavismVaishnavism is a tradition of Hinduism, distinguished from other schools by its worship of Vishnu or his associated avatars, principally as Rama and Krishna, as the original and supreme God. This worship in different perspectives or historical traditions addresses God under the names of Narayana,...
and ShaivismShaivism names the oldest of the four sects of Hinduism. Followers of Shaivism, called "Shaivas," and also "Saivas" or "Saivites," revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is. Shaivism is...
worship VishnuVishnu , , is the Supreme God in Vaishnavite tradition of Hinduism. Smarta followers of Adi Shankara, among others, venerate Vishnu as one of the five primary forms of God...
and ShivaShiva , also known as Rudra is a major Hindu god and one aspect of Trimurti. In the Shaiva tradition of Hinduism, Shiva is seen as the Supreme God...
in a monotheistic sense. A number of scholars even consider the SamkhyaSankhya, also Samkhya, is one of the six schools of classical Indian philosophy. Sage Kapila is traditionally considered to be the founder of the Sankhya school, although no historical verification is possible...
school of thought to have atheistic leanings.
Buddhism
{{main|Buddhism}}
Buddhism is a dharmic, non-theistic religion and philosophyPhilosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing these questions by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on reasoned...
. Buddhism was founded around the fifth century BCE in India by Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, with the Four Noble TruthsThe Four Noble Truths is one of the most fundamental Buddhist teachings. In broad terms, these truths relate to suffering , its nature, its origin, its cessation and the path leading to its cessation...
and the Eightfold Path as its central principles. According to the scriptures, the Four Noble Truths were revealed by the BuddhaSiddhārtha Gautama was a spiritual teacher in the north eastern region of the Indian subcontinent who founded Buddhism. He is regarded by Buddhists as the Supreme Buddha of our age. The time of his birth and death are uncertain: most early 20th-century historians dated his lifetime as c...
in his first sermon after attaining enlightenment. The schools of Buddhism are typically divided into TheravadaTheravada Theravada Theravada (Pāli: थेरवाद theravāda (cf Sanskrit: स्थविरवाद sthaviravāda); literally, "the Teaching of the Elders" or "the Ancient Teaching", is the oldest surviving Buddhist school. It was founded in India...
and MahayanaMahayana is one of the two main existing branches of Buddhism and a term for classification of Buddhist philosophies and practice. It was founded in India...
. In academic circles, Mahayana is further divided into East AsianEast Asian Buddhism is a collective term for the schools of Buddhism that developed in the East Asian region, most of which are part of the Mahayana transmission...
and Tibetan BuddhismTibetan Buddhism is the body of Buddhist religious doctrine and institutions characteristic of Tibet and certain regions of the Himalayas, including northern Nepal, Bhutan, and India...
. Buddhism teaches that someone who becomes enlightenedBodhi is both a Pāli and Sanskrit word traditionally translated into English as enlightenment, but frequently translated as "awakening"...
without instruction is a buddha. The primary goal of Buddhism is the liberation of the practitioner from samsaraSamsara is the endless cycle of suffering caused by birth, death and rebirth within Buddhism, Bön, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and other related religions....
. Buddhists hold this to be the solution to the problem of suffering.
Jainism
{{main|Jainism}}
Jainism is the religion of the followers of Mahavir. He is said to be the 24th Tirthankara, or the 24th in a line of teachers espousing Jain principles. Jains reject the Vedas and highlight the practice of austerity. Jain faith states that the jivaIn Hinduism and Jainism, a jiva is a living being, or more specifically the immortal essence of a living being which survives physical death. It has a very similar usage to 'atma', but whereas atma refers to 'the cosmic self', 'jiva' is used to denote an individual 'living entity' or 'living...
, or soul, can escape the cycle of rebirth and death through strict ethical behavior. When nothing remains but the purity of the jiva, that person is called a jinaJina may refer to:*Tirthankar, in Jainism*Jina, Sibiu, a commune in Sibiu County, Romania*Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics...
, or winner, which is the origin of the term Jain. Karma is viewed as an accumulation that burdens the soul, causing attachment and suffering. AhimsaAhimsa is a Sanskrit term meaning to do no harm . It is an important tenet of the religions that originated in ancient India . Ahimsa is a rule of conduct that bars the killing or injuring of living beings...
, or non-violence, is central to Jain faith and practice. It is interpreted very strictly as prohibiting all forms of harm to other living beings. Due to this, Jainism requires a strict vegetarian lifestyle. Ahimsa also applies to speaking, as one's words can cause harm and suffering.
Sikhism
{{main|Sikhism}}
Sikhism is a religion which began in Northern India. It is founded on the teachings of Guru Nanak DevGuru Nanak Dev Ji is the first of the ten Sikh Gurus. Sikhs believe that all subsequent Gurus possessed Guru Nanak's divinity and religious authority.-Early life:...
and the nine gurusSikhism was established by Guru Nanak and nine other Sikh Gurus over the period of 1469 to 1708. Most of the Gurus were born in Northern India, although they traveled extensively from as far west as Iraq to Assam in the east and Sri Lanka in the south...
that followed. He received a vision to preach the way to enlightenment and God in Sultanpur. His views rejected the traditional worships and caste of the Hinduism faith. Salvation is tied to faith and a relationship with God. God is omnipresent, infinite and without gender. Sikhs believe that prior to creation all that existed was God and his hukamHukam is a Punjabi word derived from the Arabic hukm, meaning "command" or "order." In God whose is referred to as Waheguru. It is by the command of Him that we are born and we die. In the Sikh Scripture, the founder of the religion, Guru Nanak says:...
, or will. Sikhs also believe that there are many worlds on which God has created life. The Gurū Granth SāhibThe Guru Granth Sahib , or Adi Sri Guru Granth Sahib, is the holy scripture and the final Guru of the Sikhs. It is a voluminous text of 1430 angs , compiled and composed during the period of Sikh Gurus, from 1469 to 1708...
are the central scriptures intended to preserve hymns and the teachings of the gurus. Rituals, religious ceremonies or empty worship are considered of little use and Sikhs are discouraged from fasting or going on pilgrimages. During later periods, especially those of increased organization within the faith, some ceremonies and rites did arise. Recitation of scripture is a central feature of Sikh practice. For example, the recitation of ardāsThe Ardās is a Sikh prayer that is done before performing or after undertaking any significant task; after reciting the daily Banis ; or completion of a service like the Paath, kirtan program or any other religious program. In Sikhism, these prayers are also said before and after eating...
is customary for Sikhs attending a temple.
East Asian Religions
{{details|East Asian religions}}
The group of East AsiaEast Asia or Eastern Asia is a subregion of Asia that can be defined in either geographical or cultural terms. Geographically and geo-politically, it covers about , or about 28 percent of the Asian continent, about 15 percent bigger than the area of Europe, though some categorize Tibet, Xinjiang,...
n religions or philosophies share the concept of TaoTao is a concept found in Taoism, Confucianism, and more generally in ancient Chinese philosophy. While the character itself translates as 'way', 'path', or 'route', or sometimes more loosely as 'doctrine' or 'principle', it is used philosophically to signify the fundamental or true nature of the...
. They may be considered as forming a group within world religions comparable to the "Abrahamic" or "Dharmic" groups. The "Taoic" faiths claim at least 500 million members worldwide.
Taoism
{{main|Taoism}}
Taoism is a variety of related religious and philosophical traditions. Categorization of Taoist sects and movements is very controversial. Taoist propriety and ethics places an emphasis on the Three Jewels of the TaoThe Three Treasures or Three Jewels are basic virtues in Taoism. They first appear in Tao Te Ching chapter 67, which Lin Yutang says contains Laozi's "most beautiful teachings."...
; love, moderation, humility. Taoist theology focuses on doctrines of wu weiWu wei is an important concept of Taoism , that involves knowing when to act and when not to act. Another perspective to this is that "Wu Wei" means...
("non-action"), spontaneity, humanismHumanism is a perspective common to a wide range of ethical stances that attaches importance to human dignity, concerns, and capabilities, particularly rationality. Although the word has many senses, its meaning comes into focus when contrasted to the supernatural or to appeals to authority...
, relativismRelativism is the idea that some elements or aspects of experience or culture are relative to, i.e., dependent on, other elements or aspects.Common statements that might be considered relativistic include:* "That's true for you but not for me."...
and emptiness.
Most traditional Chinese Taoists are polytheistic. There are disagreements regarding the proper composition of this pantheon. Popular Taoism typically presents the Jade EmperorThe Jade Emperor , is the Taoist ruler of Heaven and all realms of existence below including that of Man and Hell according to a version of Taoist mythology...
as the head deityA deity is a postulated preternatural or supernatural immortal being, who may be thought of as holy, divine, or sacred, held in high regard, and respected by believers....
. Intellectual, or "elite", Taoism usually presents LaoziLaozi was a philosopher of ancient China and is a central figure in Taoism . Laozi literally means "Old Master" and is generally considered an honorific...
and the Three Pure OnesThe Three Pure Ones also translated asthe Three Pure Pellucid Ones, the Three Pristine Ones, the Three Clarities, or the Three Purities, are the three highest Taoist deities....
at the top of the pantheon. Nature and ancestor spirits are common in popular Taoism. But this sort of shamanismShamanism comprises a range of traditional beliefs and practices concerned with communication with the spirit world. It is a prominent term in anthropological research. A practitioner of shamanism is known as a shaman, , noun...
is eschewed for an emphasis on internal alchemyInternal alchemy, also called spiritual alchemy, is a term used for different esoteric disciplines focused on balancing internal and spiritual energies. In China, it is an important form of practice for most schools of Taoism...
among the "elite" Taoists. Tao itself is rarely an object of worship, being treated more like the Central Asian concept of atmanAtman may refer to a concept in several Dharmic Traditions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism:* Ātman * Ātman Atman may also refer to:*Atman the clothing line and fragrance made by Russell Simmons...
.
Shinto
{{main|Shinto}}
Shinto is an animistic folk religionFolk religion consists of ethnic or regional religious customs under the umbrella of an organized religion, but outside of official doctrine and practices...
from Japan. Shinto literally means "the way of the gods". Many Japanese Shintoists also identify themselves as Buddhists. Japanese Pure Land BuddhismPure Land Buddhism . Pure Land Buddhism is a term that is used to describe both the Pure Land soteriology of Mahayana Buddhism, which may be better understood as Pure Land traditions, and the Pure Land sects that developed in Japan...
is deeply intertwined with the Shinto faith. Shinto practitioners commonly affirm tradition, family, nature, cleanliness and ritual observation as core values. Taoic influence is significant in their beliefs about nature and self-mastery.
Ritual cleanliness is a central part of Shinto life. Shrines have a significant place in Shintoism, reflecting the animistic veneration of the kamiis the Japanese word for the spirits, natural forces, or essence in the Shinto faith. The oldest written record of Japanese creation is in the Kojiki of 712. Although the word is sometimes translated as "god" or "deity," some Shinto scholars argue that such a translation can cause a...
. "Folk", or "popular", Shinto places an emphasis on shamanism, particularly divinationDivination is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of a standardized process or ritual. Diviners ascertain their interpretations of how a querent should proceed by reading signs, events, or omens, or through alleged contact with a supernatural agency...
, spirit possession and faith healingFaith healing is a concept that religious belief can bring about healing—either through prayers or rituals that, according to adherents, evoke a divine presence and power toward correcting disease and disability in particular indicated individuals. Belief in divine intervention in illness or...
. "Sect" Shinto is a diverse group including mountain-worshippers and Confucian Shintoists.
Confucianism
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Confucianism is a complex system of moral, social, political, and religious thought, influential in the history of East Asia. It is commonly associated with legalismLegalism may refer to:In legal theory:*Liberal legalism - A theory on the relationship between politics and lawIn philosophy:* Legalism , a concept in Western jurisprudence...
but it rejects legalism for ritualism. It also endorses meritocracyMeritocracy is a system of a government or other organization wherein appointments are made and responsibilities assigned to individuals based upon demonstrated talent and ability . In a meritocracy, society rewards those who show talent and competence as demonstrated by past actions or by...
as the ideal of nobilityNobility is a state-privileged status which is generally hereditary, but which may also be personal only. Titles of nobility are usually associated with present or former monarchies. The term originally referred to those who were "known" or "notable" and was applied to the highest social class in...
. Confucianism has a complicated system governing duties and etiquette in relationships. Confucian ethics focus on familial duty, loyalty and humaneness.
Confucianism tolerates the Chinese folk recognition of the existence of animistic spirits, ghosts and deities. It approves paying them proper respect, but at a more fundamental level encourages avoiding them. Confucian thought is notable as the framework upon which the syncretic Neo-ConfucianismNeo-Confucianism / is a form of Confucianism that was primarily developed during the Song Dynasty, but which can be traced back to Han Yu and Li Ao in the Tang Dynasty. It formed the basis of Confucian orthodoxy in the Qing Dynasty of China. It was a philosophy that attempted to merge certain...
was built.
East Asian Buddhism
{{main|East Asian Buddhism}}
{{see|Mahayana|Vajrayana|Zen|Chinese Buddhism|Korean Buddhism|Buddhism in Japan|Buddhism in Vietnam|}}
{{see|Silk Road transmission of Buddhism}}
See also
- Eastern philosophy
Eastern philosophy includes the various philosophies of Asia, including Indian philosophy, Chinese philosophy, Iranian philosophy, Japanese philosophy, and Korean philosophy...
- Comparative religion
Comparative religion is a field of religious study that analyzes the similarities and differences of themes, myths, rituals and concepts among the world's religions...
- Chinese folk religion
Chinese folk religion is a collective label given to various folkloric beliefs that draws heavily from Chinese mythology. It comprises the religion practiced in much of China for thousands of years which included ancestor worship and drew heavily upon concepts and beings within Chinese mythology...
- Folk religion
Folk religion consists of ethnic or regional religious customs under the umbrella of an organized religion, but outside of official doctrine and practices...
- Western religion
The term Western religion refers to religions that originated within Western culture, and are thus which historically, culturally, and theologically distinct from the Eastern religions...