Dutch phonology

{{selfref|For assistance with IPA transcriptions of Dutch for Wikipedia articles, see [[WP:IPA for Dutch and Afrikaans]].}} {{Dutch Grammar}} {{IPA notice}} [[Dutch language|Dutch]] is a Germanic language and as such has a similar phonology to other Germanic languages (particularly [[Low German]], [[Frisian languages|Frisian]], [[English language|English]], and [[German language|German]]). (See the [[West Germanic languages]].) Dutch as spoken in [[Haarlem]] is popularly said to be closest to northern “Standard” Dutch, ''not'' the [[Amsterdam]] dialect. ==Vowels== [[Image:Dutch-monophthongs.png|thumb|250px|[[Monophthong]]s of Netherlandic Dutch (from {{Harvcoltxt|Gussenhoven|1992|p=47}})]] [[Image:Dutch-diphthongs.png|thumb|250px|[[Diphthong]]s of Netherlandic Dutch (from {{Harvcoltxt|Gussenhoven|1992|p=47}})]] Dutch has an extensive [[vowel]] inventory consisting of 13 plain vowels and four diphthongs. The vowels {{IPA|/eː/}}, {{IPA|/øː/}}, and {{IPA|/oː/}} are included in the diphthong chart below because many northern dialects realize them as diphthongs, though they behave phonologically like the other simple vowels. When they precede {{IPA|/r/}}, these vowels are pronounced {{IPA|[ɪː]}}, {{IPA|[ʏː]}}, and {{IPA|[ɔː]}} respectively. {{IPA|[ɐ]}} (a [[near-open central vowel]]) is an allophone of unstressed {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/ɑ/}}. Vowel length is not always considered a distinctive feature in Dutch phonology, because it is usually paired with changes in vowel quality. However, there are some minimal pairs distinguished by length alone. One example occurs in dialects where the opposition between voiced and voiceless fricatives has been neutralised (by devoicing the voiced fricatives); in these dialects, ''roze'' {{IPA|[rɔːsə]}} ("pink") and ''rosse'' {{IPA|[rɔsə]}} ("red-haired") are not only a minimal pair, but could even conceivably lead to misunderstanding if misheard (is someone's hair red or pink?). Compare ''kroes'' {{IPA|[krus]}} ("mug") versus ''cruise'' {{IPA|[kruːs]}} ("cruise"). {| class="wikitable" border="1" |+ '''Dutch Vowels with Example Words''' !align=center|'''Symbol''' !colspan=3 align=center|'''Example''' |- ![[Vowel]] ![[Help:IPA|IPA]] ![[Dutch orthography|orthography]] !Gloss |- |{{IPA|ɪ}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-kip.ogg|{{IPA|kɪp}}}} |''kip'' |'chicken' |- |{{IPA|i}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-biet.ogg|{{IPA|bit}}}} |''biet'' |'beetroot' |- |{{IPA|ʏ}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-hut.ogg|{{IPA|ɦʏt}}}} |''hut'' |'cabin' |- |{{IPA|yː}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-fuut.ogg|{{IPA|fyːt}}}} |''fuut'' |'grebe' |- |{{IPA|ɛ}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-bed.ogg|{{IPA|bɛt}}}} |''bed'' |'bed' |- |{{IPA|ɛː}}{{ref|3a|3}} |{{IPA|bɑ.ri.ɛː.rə}} |''barrière'' |'barrier' |- |{{IPA|eɪ, eː}}{{ref|1a|1}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-beet.ogg|{{IPA|beɪt}}}}
{{Audio-IPA|Nl-beet (Belgium).ogg|{{IPA|beːt}}}} |''beet'' |'bite' |- |{{IPA|ə}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-de.ogg|{{IPA|də}}}} |''de'' |'the' |- |{{IPA|øʏ, øː}}{{ref|1a|1}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-neus (Netherlands).ogg|{{IPA|nøʏs}}}}
{{Audio-IPA|Nl-neus (Belgium).ogg|{{IPA|nøːs}}}} |''neus'' |'nose' |- |{{IPA|ɑ}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-bad.ogg|{{IPA|bɑt}}}} |''bad'' |'bath' |- |{{IPA|aː}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-baat.ogg|{{IPA|baːt}}}} |''baad'' |'bathe' |- |{{IPA|ɔ}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-bot.ogg|{{IPA|bɔt}}}} |''bot'' |'bone' |- |{{IPA|ɔː}}{{ref|3a|3}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-roze.ogg|{{IPA|rɔːzə}}}} |''roze'' |'pink' |- |{{IPA|oʊ, oː}}{{ref|1a|1}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-boot.ogg|{{IPA|boʊt}}}}
{{Audio-IPA|Nl-boot (Belgium).ogg|{{IPA|boːt}}}} |''boot'' |'boat' |- |{{IPA|u}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-hoed.ogg|{{IPA|ɦut}}}} |''hoed'' |'hat' |- |{{IPA|ɛi}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-bijt.ogg|{{IPA|bɛit}}}}, {{Audio-IPA|Nl-ei.ogg|{{IPA|ɛi}}}} |''bijt'', ''ei'' |'bite', 'egg' |- |{{IPA|œy}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-buit.ogg|{{IPA|bœyt}}}} |''buit'' |'booty' |- |{{IPA|ʌu, ɔu}}{{ref|2a|2}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-fout (Netherlands).ogg|{{IPA|fʌut}}}}, {{Audio-IPA|Nl-nauw (Netherlands).ogg|{{IPA|nʌu}}}}
{{Audio-IPA|Nl-fout (Belgium).ogg|{{IPA|fɔut}}}}, {{Audio-IPA|Nl-nauw (Belgium).ogg|{{IPA|nɔu}}}} |''fout'', ''nauw'' |'mistake', 'narrow' |- |} :{{note|1a|1}} Pronounced as long vowels in Belgium, but as narrow closing diphthongs in the Netherlands. The transcription {{IPA|/eɪ øʏ oʊ/}} for this diphthongal pronunciation is non-standard and used here for the sake of clarity. :{{note|2a|2}} Pronounced {{IPA|/ʌu/}} in Northern Standard Dutch and {{IPA|/ɔu/}} in Standard Belgian Dutch. :{{note|3a|3}} Only in loanwords, mostly from French. ==Consonants== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" ! colspan=2|  ![[Labial consonant|Labial]] ![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] ![[Postalveolar consonant|Post-
alveolar]] ![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ![[Velar consonant|Velar]] ![[Uvular consonant|Uvular]] ![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]] |- !style="text-align:left" colspan=2 |[[nasal consonant|Nasal]] | {{IPA|m}} | {{IPA|n}} | | | {{IPA|ŋ}} | | |- !style="text-align:left" rowspan=2 | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]] !voiceless | {{IPA|p}} | {{IPA|t}} | | | {{IPA|k}} | | {{IPA|(ʔ)}} {{ref|1b|1}} |- !voiced | {{IPA|b}} | {{IPA|d}} | | | {{IPA|(ɡ)}} {{ref|2b|2}} | | |- !style="text-align:left" rowspan=2|[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] !voiceless | {{IPA|f}} | {{IPA|s}} | {{IPA|ʃ}} {{ref|3b|3}} | colspan=3|{{IPA|ç ~ x ~ χ}} {{ref|4b|4}} | |- !voiced | {{IPA|v}} {{ref|5b|5}} | {{IPA|z}} {{ref|5b|5}} | {{IPA|ʒ}} {{ref|3b|3}} | colspan=2| {{IPA|ʝ ~ ɣ}} {{ref|4b|4}} | {{IPA|ʁ}} {{ref|6b|6}} | {{IPA|ɦ}} {{ref|5b|5}} |- !style="text-align:left" colspan=2 | [[Trill consonant|Trill]] | | {{IPA|r}} {{ref|6b|6}} | | | | {{IPA|ʀ}} {{ref|6b|6}} | |- !style="text-align:left" colspan=2 | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]] | {{IPA|β̞ ~ ʋ}} {{ref|7b|7}} | {{IPA|l}} {{ref|8b|8}} | | {{IPA|j}} | {{IPA|w}}{{ref|7b|7}} | | |} Notes: :{{note|1b|1}} {{IPA|[ʔ]}} is not a separate phoneme in Dutch, but is inserted before vowel-initial syllables within words after {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/ə/}} and often also at the beginning of a word. :{{note|2b|2}} {{IPA|/ɡ/}} is not a native phoneme of Dutch and only occurs in borrowed words like ''goal'' or [[allophone|allophonically]] when {{IPA|/k/}} is voiced due to assimilation, like in ''zakdoek'' {{IPA|[zɑɡduk]}}. :{{note|3b|3}} {{IPA|/ʃ/}} and {{IPA|/ʒ/}} are not native phonemes of Dutch, and usually occur in borrowed words, like ''show'' and ''bagage'' ('baggage'). However, {{IPA|/s/}} + {{IPA|/j/}} phoneme sequences in Dutch are often realized as {{IPA|[ʃ]}}. :{{note|4b|4}} The sound spelled is a [[voiceless velar fricative]] {{IPA|[x]}} in Northern Dutch and a [[voiceless palatal fricative]] {{IPA|[ç]}} in Southern Dutch, including all of [[Flanders|Dutch-speaking Belgium]]. In the North {{IPA|/ɣ/}} is usually realized as {{IPA|[x]}} or {{IPA|[χ]}}, whereas in the South the distinction between {{IPA|/ʝ/}} and {{IPA|/ç/}} has been preserved. :{{note|5b|5}} In some northern dialects, the voiced fricatives have almost completely merged with the voiceless ones; {{IPA|/ɦ/}} is usually realized as {{IPA|[h]}}, {{IPA|/v/}} is usually realized as {{IPA|[f]}}, {{IPA|/z/}} is usually realized as {{IPA|[s]}}. :{{note|6b|6}} The realization of {{IPA|/r/}} varies considerably from dialect to dialect. In "standard" Dutch, {{IPA|/r/}} is realized as the [[alveolar trill]] {{IPA|[r]}}. In some dialects it is realized as the [[alveolar tap]] {{IPA|[ɾ]}}, the [[voiced uvular fricative]] {{IPA|[ʁ]}}, the [[uvular trill]] {{IPA|[ʀ]}}, or as the [[alveolar approximant]] {{IPA|[ɹ]}}. :{{note|7b|7}} The realization of {{IPA|/ʋ/}} varies considerably from the Northern to the Southern and Belgium dialects of the Dutch language. In the north of the Netherlands, it is a [[labiodental approximant]]: {{IPA|[ʋ]}}. In the south of the Netherlands, Belgium, as well as in the Hasselt and Maastricht dialects, it is pronounced as a [[voiced bilabial fricative|bilabial approximant]] ({{IPA|[β̞]}}). :{{note|8b|8}} The lateral {{IPA|/l/}} is [[velarized]] postvocalically (and may even be [[L-vocalization|vocalized]] by certain speakers). {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Dutch Consonants with Example Words''' |colspan=1 align=center|'''Symbol''' |colspan=4 align=center|'''Example''' |- ![[Help:IPA|IPA]] ![[Help:IPA|IPA]] ![[Dutch orthography|orthography]] !Gloss |- |{{IPA|p}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-pen.ogg|pɛn}} |''pen'' |'pen' |- |{{IPA|b}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-biet.ogg|bit}} |''biet'' |'beetroot' |- |{{IPA|t}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-tak.ogg|tɑk}} |''tak'' |'branch' |- |{{IPA|d}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-dak.ogg|dɑk}} |''dak'' |'roof' |- |{{IPA|k}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-kat.ogg|kɑt}} |''kat'' |'cat' |- |{{IPA|ɡ}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-goal.ogg|ɡoːl}} |''goal'' |'goal' (sports) |- |{{IPA|m}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-mens.ogg|mɛns}} |''mens'' |'human being' |- |{{IPA|n}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-nek.ogg|nɛk}} |''nek'' |'neck' |- |{{IPA|ŋ}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-eng.ogg|ɛŋ}} |''eng'' |'scary' |- |{{IPA|f}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-fiets.ogg|fits}} |''fiets'' |'bicycle' |- |{{IPA|v}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-oven.ogg|oːvən}}¹ |''oven'' |'oven' |- |{{IPA|s}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-sok.ogg|sɔk}} |''sok'' |'sock' |- |{{IPA|z}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-zeep.ogg|zeːp}} |''zeep'' |'soap' |- |{{IPA|ʃ}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-chef.ogg|ʃɛf}} |''chef'' |'boss, chief' |- |{{IPA|ʒ}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-jury.ogg|ʒyːri}} |''jury'' |'jury' |- |{{IPA|x}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-acht (North).ogg|ɑxt}} |''acht'' |'eight' |- |{{IPA|ç}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-acht (South).ogg|ɑçt}} |''acht'' |'eight' |- |{{IPA|ɣ}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-gaan.ogg|ɣaːn}} |''gaan'' |'to go' |- |{{IPA|ʝ}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-gaan (South).ogg|ʝaːn}} |''gaan'' |'to go' |- |{{IPA|r}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-rat.ogg|rɑt}} |''rat'' |'rat' |- |{{IPA|ɦ}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-hoed.ogg|ɦut}} |''hoed'' |'hat' |- |{{IPA|ʋ}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-wang.ogg|ʋɑŋ}} |''wang'' |'cheek' |- |{{IPA|w}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-wang (Belgium).ogg|wɑŋ}} |''wang'' |'cheek' |- |{{IPA|j}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-jas.ogg|jɑs}} |''jas'' |'coat' |- |{{IPA|l}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-land.ogg|lɑnt}} |''land'' |'land / country' |- |{{IPA|ʔ}} |{{Audio-IPA|Nl-beamen.ogg|bəʔaːmən}}¹ |''beamen'' |'to confirm' |} # Often the final 'n' is not pronounced. [[Dutch language]] [[Final obstruent devoicing|devoices]] all obstruents at the ends of words (e.g. a final {{IPA|/d/}} becomes {{IPA|[t]}}). This is partly reflected in the spelling, the voiced "z" in plural {{Audio|Nl-huizen.ogg|''hui'''z'''en''}} becomes {{Audio|Nl-huis.ogg|''hui'''s'''''}} ('house') in singular. And {{Audio|Nl-duiven.ogg|''dui'''v'''en''}} becomes {{Audio|Nl-duif.ogg|''dui'''f'''''}} ('dove'). The other cases, are always written with the voiced consonant, although a devoiced one is actually pronounced, e.g. the voiced "d" in plural ''baar'''d'''en'' ({{Audio-IPA|Nl-baarden.ogg|[baːrdən]}}) is retained in singular spelling ''baar'''d''''' ('beard'), but pronounced as {{Audio-IPA|Nl-baard.ogg|[baːrt]}}, and plural ''ri'''bb'''en'' ({{Audio-IPA|Nl-ribben.ogg|[rɪbən]}}) has singular ''ri'''b''''' ('rib'), pronounced as {{Audio-IPA|Nl-rib.ogg|[rɪp]}}. Because of assimilation, often the initial consonant of the next word is usually also devoiced, e.g. ''het vee'' ('the cattle') is {{IPA|/(ɦ)ətfeː/}}. Some regions (Amsterdam, Friesland) have almost completely lost the voiced fricatives {{IPA|/v/}}, {{IPA|/z/}}, and {{IPA|/ɣ/}}. However, these phonemes are certainly present in the middle of a word. Compare e.g. ''logen'' and ''loochen'' {{IPA|[loːɣən]}} vs. {{IPA|[loːxən]}}. In the South (i.e. Zeeland, Brabant, and Limburg) and in Flanders the contrast is even greater because the is palatal. ('soft g'): {{Audio-IPA|Nl-logen (Belgium).ogg|[loːʝən]}} vs. {{Audio-IPA|Nl-loochen (Belgium).ogg|[loːçən]}}. The final 'n' of the plural ending -en is usually not pronounced (as in Afrikaans where it is also dropped in the written language), except in the North East (Low Saxon) and the South West (East and West Flemish) where the ending becomes a syllabic n sound. ==Stress== When the penultimate syllable is open, stress may fall on any of the last three syllables. When the penultimate syllable is closed, stress falls on either of the last two syllables. While stress is phonemic, minimal pairs are rare. For example ''[[wikt:voorkomen#Etymology 1|vóórkomen]]'' (''to occur'' — {{Audio|Nl-voorkomen1.ogg|listen}}) and ''[[wikt:voorkomen#Etymology 2|voorkómen]]'' (''to prevent'' — {{Audio|Nl-voorkomen2.ogg|listen}}). This also conveys information about the grammatical behavior of the word: when inflected, ''vóórkomen'' separates as ''kom- ... voor'', while in ''voorkómen'' the prefix is considered as part of the root and thus remains in place. In composite words, secondary stress is often present. Marking the stress in written Dutch is optional, never obligatory, but sometimes recommended. The most common practice is to distinguish ''een'' (indefinite article, which, as a [[clitic]], bears no stress) from ''één'' (the cardinal number one). ==Phonotactics== The syllable structure of Dutch is (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C). Many words, like in English, begin with three consonants - e.g. {{Audio|Nl-straat.ogg|''straat''}} (street). There are words that end in four consonants - e.g. {{Audio|Nl-herfst.ogg|''herfst''}} (autumn), {{Audio|Nl-ergst.ogg|''ergst''}} (worst), {{Audio|Nl-interessantst.ogg|''interessantst''}} (most interesting), {{Audio|Nl-sterkst.ogg|''sterkst''}} (strongest) - most of them being adjectives in the superlative form. ==Historical sound changes== Dutch (with the exception of the Limburg dialects) did not participate in the [[High German consonant shift|second Germanic consonant shift]] except for the last stage - compare > {{IPA|/-x-/}}: German ''machen'' vs. Dutch {{Audio|Nl-maken.ogg|''maken''}}, English ''make'' > {{IPA|/-f-/}}: German ''Schaf'' vs. Dutch {{Audio|Nl-schaap (Belgium).ogg|''schaap''}}, English ''sheep'' > {{IPA|/-s-/}}: German ''Wasser'' vs. Dutch {{Audio|Nl-water.ogg|''water''}}, English ''water'' > {{IPA|/-d-/}}: German ''das'', Dutch {{Audio|Nl-dat.ogg|''dat''}} vs. English ''that'' Dutch generalised the fricative variety of Proto-Germanic {{IPA|*/ɡ/}} as {{IPA|[ɣ]}} or {{IPA|[ʝ]}}, in contrast with German which generalised the plosive {{IPA|[ɡ]}}, and English which lost the fricative variety through regular sound changes. Dutch underwent a few changes of its own. For example: * Words with -old or -olt lost the {{IPA|/l/}} in favor of a [[diphthong]] as a result of [[l-vocalization]]. Compare English ''old'', German ''alt'', Dutch {{Audio|Nl-oud.ogg|''oud''}}. changed to {{IPA|/xt/}} (North) or {{IPA|/çt/}} (South), spelled ⟨cht⟩, but this was later reverted in many words by analogy with other forms. Compare English ''loft'', German ''Luft'', Dutch ''lucht'' (pronounced {{Audio-IPA|Nl-lucht.ogg|[lʏxt]}} or {{Audio-IPA|Nl-lucht (Belgium).ogg|[lʏçt]}}). * Proto-Germanic {{IPA|*/uː/}} turned into {{IPA|/yː/}} through palatalization, which, in turn, became the diphthong {{Audio-IPA|Nl-ui.ogg|/œy/}}, spelled ⟨ui⟩. Long {{IPA|*/iː/}} also diphthongized to {{Audio-IPA|Nl-ei.ogg|/ɛi/}}, spelled ⟨ij⟩. ==See also== * [[Wikipedia:IPA for Dutch and Afrikaans]] * [[Dutch orthography]] * [[Hard and soft G in Dutch]]