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Double-entry bookkeeping system
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Double-entry bookkeeping is a system of financial accounting where each transaction is recorded in at least two accounts: at least one account is debited and at least one account is credited, so that the total debits of the transaction equal to the total credits. For example, if Company A sells an item to Company B, and Company B pays by cheque, then the bookkeeper of Company A credits the account "Sales" and debits the account "Bank".
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Encyclopedia
Double-entry bookkeeping is a system of financial accounting where each transaction is recorded in at least two accounts: at least one account is debited and at least one account is credited, so that the total debits of the transaction equal to the total credits. For example, if Company A sells an item to Company B, and Company B pays by cheque, then the bookkeeper of Company A credits the account "Sales" and debits the account "Bank". Conversely, the bookkeeper of Company B debits the account "Purchases" and credits the account "Bank".
History
The origins of a primitive double-entry system has been traced as far back as the Republican Rome (although some consider the Greek merchants to have used a rudimental version of this system), in ""ex Oratione Ciceronis pro Roscio Comaedo", and Naturalis Historiae Plinii, lib. 2, cap. 7 where the advised system was "That the one side of their booke was used for Debitor, the other for Creditor" (Huic Omnia Expensa. Huic Omnia Feruntur accepta et in tota Ratione mortalium sola. Utramque Paginam facit.). Later we have traces of it in the 12th century to accounting in the Islamic world. Some sources suggest that Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici introduced this method for the Medici bank in the 13th century. The earliest extant records that follow the modern double-entry form are those of Amatino Manucci, a Florentine merchant at the end of the 13th century. By the end of the 15th century, the merchant venturers of Venice used this system widely. Luca Pacioli, a monk and collaborator of Leonardo da Vinci, first codified the system in a mathematics textbook of 1494. Pacioli is often called the "father of accounting" because he was the first to publish a detailed description of the double-entry system, thus enabling others to study and use it.
In Japan, double-entry bookkeeping was introduced during the Meiji period in the 1870s. The newly-established Japan Mint was the earliest Japanese government institution to begin using double-entry bookkeeping in its Osaka headquarters.
Bookkeeping process
In the normal course of business, a document is produced each time a transaction occurs. Sales and purchases usually have invoices or receipts. Deposit slips are produced when lodgements (deposits) are made to a bank account. Cheques are written to pay money out of the account. Bookkeeping involves recording the details of all of these source documents into multi-column journals (also known as a books of first entry or daybooks). For example, all credit sales are recorded in the Sales Journal, all Cash Payments are recorded in the Cash Payments Journal. Columns in the journal normally correspond to an account. In the single entry system, each transaction is recorded only once. Most individuals who balance their cheque-book each month are using such a system, and most personal finance software follows this approach.
After a certain period, typically a month, the columns in each journal are each totalled to give a summary for the period. Using the rules of double entry, these journal summaries are then transferred to their respective accounts in the ledger, or book of accounts. The process of transferring summaries or individual transactions to the ledger is called Posting. Once the posting process is complete, accounts kept using the "T" format undergo balancing which is simply a process to arrive at the balance of the account.
To quickly check that the posting process was done correctly, a working document called an unadjusted trial balance is created. In its simplest form, this is a three column list. The first column contains the names of those accounts in the ledger which have a non-zero balance. If an account has a debit balance, the balance amount is copied into column two (the debit column). If an account has a credit balance, the amount is copied into column three (the credit column). The debit column is then totaled and then the credit column is totaled. The two totals must agree - this agreement is not by chance - because under the double-entry rules, whenever there is a posting, the debits of the posting equal the credits of the posting. If the two totals do not agree, an error has been made in either the journals or made during the posting process. The error must be located and rectified and the totals of debit column and credit column re-calculated to check for agreement before any further processing can take place.
Once there are no errors, the accountant produces a number of adjustments and changes the balance amounts of some of the accounts. For example, the "Inventory" account and "Office Supplies" asset accounts are changed to bring them into line with the actual numbers counted during a stock take. At the same time, the expense accounts associated with usage of inventory and with the usage of office supplies are adjusted. Other refinements necessary to ensure that accounting principles are complied with are also done at this time. This results in a listing called, not surprisingly, the adjusted trial balance. It is the accounts in this list and their corresponding debit or credit balances that are used to prepare the financial statements.
Finally financial statements are drawn from the trial balance, which may include:
Classification of accounts
Items in accounts are classified into five broad groups, also known as the elements of the accounts: Asset, Liability, Equity, Revenue, Expense.
Abbreviations used in bookkeeping
- A/C - Account
- A/R - Accounts Receivable
- B/S - Balance Sheet
- c/d - Carried down
- b/d - Brought down
- c/f - Carried forward
- b/f - Brought forward
- Dr - Debit record
- Cr - Credit record
- G/L - General Ledger; (or N/L - Nominal Ledger)
- P&L - Profit & Loss; (or I/S - Income Statement)
- PP&E - Property, Plant and Equipment
- TB - Trial Balance
- VAT - Value Added Tax
Debits and credits
Double-entry bookkeeping is governed by the accounting equation. If revenue equals expenses, the following (basic) equation must be true:
- assets = liabilities + equity
At any point in time, revenue might not actually be equal to expenses. If so, the equation can be further expanded, so that the (extended) equation becomes:
- assets = liabilities + equity + (revenue − expenses)
or
- assets = liabilities + (capital − drawings) + (revenue − expenses)
- A = L + C − D + R − E
Finally, the equation may be rearranged algebraically as follows:
- A + E + D = L + R + C
This equation must be true, for any time period. If it is, then the accounts are said to be in balance. If the accounts are not in balance, an error has occurred.
For the accounts to remain in balance, a change in one account must be matched with a change in another account. These changes are made by debits and credits to the accounts. Note that the usage of these terms in accounting is not identical to their everyday usage. Whether one uses a debit or credit to increase or decrease an account depends on the normal balance of the account. Assets, Expenses, and Drawings accounts (on the left side of the equation) have a normal balance of debit. Liability, Revenue, and Capital accounts (on the right side of the equation) have a normal balance of credit. On a general ledger, debits are recorded on the left side and credits on the right side for each account. Since the accounts must always balance, for each transaction there will be a debit made to one or several accounts and a credit made to one or several accounts. The sum of all debits made in any transaction must equal the sum of all credits made. After a series of transactions, therefore, the sum of all the accounts with a debit balance will equal the sum of all the accounts with a credit balance.
Debits and credits are then defined as follows:
- debit: A debit is recorded on the left hand side of a T account
- credit: A credit balance is recorded on the right hand side of a 'T' account
- Debit accounts = Asset and Expenses (also debit money received into bank accounts)
- Credit accounts = Gains (income) and Liabilities (also credit money paid out of bank accounts)
The following accounts have a normal balance of debit:
- Assets
- Accounts receivable: debts promised by other entities but not yet paid
- Drawings by the owners on equity
- Expenses
The following accounts have a normal balance of credit:
- Liabilities
- Accounts payable and taxes, notes or loans payable: debts promised to outsiders but not yet paid
- Revenue
- Capital
Credit and debit items are summarized at the end of a recording period in a trial balance which is a list of all the debit and credit balances. The trial balance acts as a self checking mechanism for the correctness of entries in the individual accounts and also as a starting point for the preparation of the Final Account which is made up of the balance sheet and the trading, profit and loss account.
Examples of debits and credits
Purchase of a Computer
- Debit Computer account (Fixed asset account) is increased.
- Credit Creditors account (Liability account) is increased.
Paying supplier for the computer
- Debit Creditors account (Liability account) is reduced.
- Credit Bank account (Asset account) is reduced.
The following table summarizes how debits and credits affect the different elements of the accounts.
= increase, = decrease
Debit/credit | Account | Debit | Credit |
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| Assets | | | | Expenses | | | | Liabilities | | | | Equity | | | | Revenue | |
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Example 1
In this example the following will be used:
Books of prime entry (Books of original entry)
- Sales Invoice Daybook (records customer Invoice Daybook)
- Bank Receipts Daybook (records customer & non customer receipts)
- Purchase Invoice Daybook (records supplier Invoice Daybook)
- Bank Payments Daybook (records supplier & non supplier payments)
The books of prime entry are where transactions are first recorded.
They are not part of the Double-entry system.
Ledger Cards
- Customer Ledger Cards
- Supplier Ledger Cards
- General Ledger (Nominal Ledger)
- Bank Account Ledger
- Trade Creditors Ledger
- Trade Debtors Ledger
From the above we will create:
- Trial Balance
- Profit and Loss A/C (Dr & Cr Formatting, classic format)
- Profit and Loss Statement (List Format, Modern version used today)
- Balance Sheet (Dr & Cr Formatting, classic format)
- Balance Sheet (List Format, Modern version used today)
Purchases/creditors
Purchase invoice daybook
Purchase Invoice Daybook | Date | Supplier Name | Reference | Amount | Electricity | Widgets | |
| 10 July 2006 | Electricity Company | PI1 | 1000 | 1000 | | | 12 July 2006 | Widget Company | PI2 | 1600 | | 1600 | | | | | ------- | ------- | | | | Total | 2600 | 1000 | 1600 | | | | |
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| | | | | Credit | Debit | Debit | | | | | Trade | Electricity | Widgets | | | | | Creditors | G/L | G/L | | | | | control a/c | a/c | a/c |
Each individual line is posted as follows:
- The amount value is posted as a credit to the individual supplier's ledger a/c
- The analysis amount is posted as a debit to the relevant general ledger a/c
From example above:
- Line 1 - Amount value 1000 is posted as a credit to the Supplier's ledger a/c ELE01-Electricity Company
- Line 2 - Amount value 1600 is posted as a credit to the Supplier's ledger a/c WID01-Widget Company
The totals of each column are posted as follows:
- Amount total value 2600 posted as a credit to the Trade creditors control a/c
- Electricity total value 1000 posted as a debit to the Electricity General Ledger a/c
- Widget total value 1600 posted as a debit to the Widgets General Ledger a/c
Double-entry has been observed because Dr = 2600 and Cr = 2600.
Bank payments daybook
The payments book is not part of the double-entry system.
Bank Payments Daybook | Date | Supplier Name | Reference | Amount | Trade Creditors | Other | |
| 17 July 2006 | Electricity Company | BP701 | 1000 | 1000 | | | 19 July 2006 | Widget Company | BP702 | 900 | 900 | | | 28 July 2006 | Owner's Wages | BP703 | 400 | | 400 | | | | | | | | Total | 2300 | 1900 | 400 | | | | | |
| | | | | | Credit | Debit | Debit | | | | | Bank | Trade | Wages | | | | | Account | Creditors | control a/c | | | | | | control a/c | |
Keys: PI = Purchase Invoice, BP = Bank Payment
Each individual line is posted as follows:
- The amount value is posted as a debit to the individual supplier's ledger a/c.
- The analysis amount is posted as a credit to the relevant general ledger a/c.
From example above:
- Line 1 - Amount value 1000 is posted as a debit to the Supplier's ledger a/c ELE01-Electricity Company.
- Line 2 - Amount value 900 is posted as a debit to the Supplier's ledger a/c WID01-Widget Company.
The totals of each column are posted as follows:
- Amount total value 2300 posted as a credit to the Bank Account.
- Trade Creditors total value 1900 posted as a debit to the Trade creditors control a/c.
- Other total value 400 posted as a debit to the Wages control a/c.
Double-entry has been observed because Dr = 2300 and Cr = 2300.
The daybooks are the key documents (books) to the double entry system. From these daybooks we create the ledger accounts. Each transaction will be recorded in at least two ledger accounts.
Supplier ledger cards
Supplier Ledger Cards | A/c Code: ELE01 - Electricity Company | | Date | Details | Reference | Amount | Date | Details | Reference | Amount |
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| 17 July 2006 | Bank Payments Daybook | BP701 | 1000 | 10 July 2006 | Invoice | PI1 | 1000 | | 31 July 2006 | Balance c/f | | 0 | | | | | | | | | | | | ------- | | | | | 1000 | | | | 1000 | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | 1 August 2006 | Balance b/f | | 0 | | A/c Code: WID01 - Widget Company |
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| Date | Details | Reference | Amount | Date | Details | Reference | Amount |
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| 19 July 2006 | Bank Payments Daybook | BP702 | 900 | 12 July 2006 | Invoice | PI2 | 1600 | | 31 July 2006 | Balance c/f | | 700 | | | | | | | | | | | | ------- | | | | | 1600 | | | | 1600 | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | 1 August 2006 | Balance b/f | | 700 | |
Sales/customers
Sales daybook
Sales Invoice Daybook | Date | Customer Name | Reference | Amount | Parts | Service | |
| 2 July 2006 | JJ Manufacturing | SI1 | 2500 | 2500 | | | 29 July 2006 | JJ Manufacturing | SI2 | 3200 | | 3200 | | | | | ------- | ------- | | | | Total | 5700 | 2500 | 3200 | | | | |
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| | | | | Debit | Credit | Credit | | | | | Trade | Sales | Sales | | | | | debtors | Parts | Service | | | | | control a/c | a/c | a/c |
Each individual line is posted as follows:
- The amount value is posted as a debit to the individual customer's ledger a/c.
- The analysis amount is posted as a credit to the relevant general ledger a/c.
From example above:
- Line 1 - Amount value 2500 is posted as a debit to the Customer's ledger a/c JJM01-JJ Manufacturing.
- Line 2 - Amount value 3200 is posted as a debit to the Customer's ledger a/c JJM01-JJ Manufacturing.
The totals of each column are posted as follows:
- Amount total value 5700 posted as a debit to the Trade debtors control a/c.
- Sales-parts total value 2500 posted as a credit to the Sales parts a/c.
- Sales-service total value 3200 posted as a credit to the Sales service a/c.
Double-entry has been observed because Dr = 5700 and Cr = 5700.
Bank receipts daybook
The receipts book is not part of the double-entry system
Bank Receipts Daybook | Date | Customer Name | Reference | Amount | Customers | Others | |
| 20 July 2006 | JJ Manufacturing | BR1 | 2500 | 2500 | 0 | | | | | | | | Total | 2500 | 2500 | 0 | | | | | |
| | | | | | Debit | Credit | Credit | | | | | Bank a/c | Trade | Other | | | | | control a/c | Debtors | control a/c | | | | | | control a/c | |
Keys: SI = Sales Invoice, BR = Bank Receipt
Each individual line is posted as follows:
- The amount value is posted as a credit to the individual customer's ledger a/c.
- The analysis amount is posted as a debit to the relevant general ledger a/c.
From example above:
- Line 1 - Amount value 2500 is posted as a credit to the Customer's ledger a/c JJM01 - JJ Manufacturing.
The totals of each column are posted as follows:
- Amount total value 2500 posted as a credit to the Trade debtors control a/c.
- Customers total value 2500 posted as a debit to the Bank a/c.
Double-entry has been observed because Dr = 2500 and Cr = 2500.
The daybooks are the key documents (books) to the double entry system. From these daybooks we create the ledger accounts. Each transaction will be recorded in at least two ledger accounts.
Customer ledger cards
Customer Ledger cards are not part of the Double-entry system. They are for memorandum purposes only.
They allow you to know the total amount an individual customer owes you.
CUSTOMER LEDGER CARDS | A/c Code: JJM01 - JJ Manufacturing | | Date | Details | Reference | Amount | Date | Details | Reference | Amount |
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| 2 July 2006 | Sales invoice daybook | SI1 | 2500 | 20 July 2006 | Bank receipts daybook | BR1 | 2500 | | 29 July 2006 | Sales invoice daybook | SI2 | 3200 | 31 July 2006 | balance c/f | | 3200 | | | | | | | | ------- | | | | | 5700 | | | | 5700 | | | | |
| | | | | | 1 August 2006 | Balance b/f | | 3200 | | | | | |
|- style="background:#efefef;"
General/Nominal ledger
General/Nominal ledger
GENERAL/NOMINAL LEDGER | Sales parts | | Date | Details | Reference | Amount | Date | Details | Reference | Amount |
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| 31 July 2006 | Balance | c/d | 2500 | 2 July 2006 | Sales invoice daybook | SI1 | 2500 | | | | | | | | ------- | | | | | 2500 | | | | 2500 | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | 1 August 2006 | Balance | b/d | 2500 | | Sales service |
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| Date | Details | Reference | Amount | Date | Details | Reference | Amount |
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| 31 July 2006 | Balance | c/d | 3200 | 29 July 2006 | Sales invoice daybook | SI2 | 3200 | | | | | | | | ------- | | | | | 3200 | | | | 3200 | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | 1 August 2006 | Balance | b/d | 3200 | | Electricity |
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| Date | Details | Reference | Amount | Date | Details | Reference | Amount |
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| 10 July 2006 | Electricity Co. | PI1 | 1000 | 31 July 2006 | Balance | c/d | 1000 | | | | | | | | ------- | | | | | 1000 | | | | 1000 | | | | |
| | | | | | 1 August 2006 | Balance | b/d | 1000 | | | | | | Widgets |
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| Date | Details | Reference | Amount | Date | Details | Reference | Amount |
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| 12 July 2006 | Widget Co. | PI2 | 1600 | 31 July 2006 | Balance | c/d | 1600 | | | | | | | | ------- | | | | | 1600 | | | | 1600 | | | | |
| | | | | | 1 August 2006 | Balance | b/d | 1600 | | | | | | Other a/c |
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| Date | Details | Reference | Amount | Date | Details | Reference | Amount |
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| 28 July 2006 | Owner's Wages | BP703 | 400 | 31 July 2006 | Balance | c/d | 400 | | | | | | | | ------- | | | | | 400 | | | | 400 | | | | |
| | | | | | 1 August 2006 | Balance | b/d | 400 | | | | | | Bank Control A/c |
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| Date | Details | Reference | Amount | Date | Details | Reference | Amount |
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| 31 July 2006 | Bank receipts daybook | BR-Jul | 2500 | 31 July 2006 | Bank payments daybook | BP-Jul | 2300 | | | | | | 31 July 2006 | Balance | c/d | 200 | | | | | | | | ------- | | | | | 2500 | | | | 2500 | | | | |
| | | | | | 1 August 2006 | Balance | b/d | 200 | | | | | | Trade Debtors Control A/c |
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| Date | Details | Reference | Amount | Date | Details | Reference | Amount |
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| 1 July 2006 | Balance | b/d | 0 | 31 July 2006 | Bank receipts daybook | BR-Jul | 2500 | | 31 July 2006 | Sales Invoice Daybook | SI-Jul | 5700 | 31 July 2006 | Balance | c/d | 3200 | | | | | | | | ------- | | | | | 5700 | | | | 5700 | | | | |
| | | | | | 1 August 2006 | Balance | b/d | 3200 | | | | | | Trade Creditors Control A/c |
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| Date | Details | Reference | Amount | Date | Details | Reference | Amount |
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| 31 July 2006 | Bank Payments Daybook | BP-Jul | 1900 | 1 July 2006 | Balance | b/d | 0 | | 31 July 2006 | Balance | c/d | 700 | 31 July 2006 | Purchase Daybook | PI-Jul | 2600 | | | | | | | | ------- | | | | | 2600 | | | | 2600 | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | 1 August 2006 | Balance | b/d | 700 | |
The customers ledger cards shows the breakdown of how the trade debtors control a/c is made up. The trade debtors control a/c is the total of outstanding debtors and the customer ledger cards shows the amount due for each individual customer. The total of each individual customer account added together should equal the total in the trade debtors control a/c.
The supplier ledger cards shows the breakdown of how the trade creditors control a/c is made up. The trade creditors control a/c is the total of outstanding creditors and the suppliers ledger cards shows the amount due for each individual supplier. The total of each individual supplier account added together should equal the total in the trade creditors control a/c.
Each Bank a/c shows all the money in and out through a bank. If you have more than one bank account for your company you will have to maintain separate bank account ledger in order to complete bank reconciliation statements and be able to see how much is left in each account.
Bank account
| Bank A/c |
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| Date | Details | Reference | Amount | Date | Details | Reference | Amount |
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| 1 July 2006 | Balance | b/d | 0 | 17 July 2006 | Bank Payments Daybook | BP701 | 1000 | | 20 July 2006 | Bank Receipts Daybook | BR1 | 2500 | 19 July 2006 | Bank Payments Daybook | BP702 | 900 | | | | | | 28 July 2006 | Bank Payments Daybook | BP703 | 400 | | | | | | 31 July 2006 | Balance | c/d | 200 | | | | | | | | ------- | | | | | 2500 | | | | 2500 | | | | |
| | | | | | 1 August 2006 | Balance | b/d | 200 | | | | | |
Unadjusted trial balance
| Trial balance as at 31 July 2006 |
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| | A/c description | Debit | Credit |
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| | Sales-parts | | 2500 | | | Sales-service | | 3200 | | | Widgets | 1600 | | | | Electricity | 1000 | | | | Other | 400 | | | | Bank | 200 | | | | Trade Debtors Control A/c | 3200 | | | | Trade Creditors Control A/c | | 700 | | | | | | | 6400 | 6400 | | | |
| | | Both sides must have the same overall total |
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| Debits = Credits. |
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The individual customer accounts are not to be listed in the trial balance, as the Trade debtors control a/c is the summary of each individual customer a/c.
The individual supplier accounts are not to be listed in the trial balance, as the Trade creditors control a/c is the summary of each individual supplier a/c.
Important note: this example is designed to show double entry. There are methods of creating a trial balance that significantly reduce the time it takes to record entries in the general ledger and trial balance.
Profit-and-loss statement and balance sheet
Profit and loss statement | for the month ending 31 July 2007 | | | | Dr |
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| x | Sales | | | x | Sales-parts | 250000 | | x | Sales-service | 320000 | | x | | | x | | 570000 | | x | Widgets | 160000 | | x | | | x | Gross Profit | 410000 | | x | Less expenses | | | x | Electricity | 100000 | | x | Other | 40000 | | x | | | x | | 140000 | | x | | | x | Net Profit | 270000 | | x | |
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Balance sheet | as at 31 July 2007 | | | | | Dr |
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| x | Current Assets | | | | x | Bank A/c | | 20000 | | x | Trade Debtors | | 320000 | | x | | | | x | | | 340000 | | x | Current Liabilities | | | | x | Trade Creditors | | 70000 | | x | | | | x | | | 70000 | | x | | | | x | Net Current Assets | | 270000 | | x | | | | | x | Capital & Reserves | | | | x | Revenue Reserves a/c | | 270000 | | x | | | | x | | | 270000 | | x | | |
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Example 2
Transactions
XYZ Company is closing its books for the end of the month. Each of the daily journals has been summarized and the amounts are ready to be transferred to the general ledger. The amounts to be transferred are:
- Purchase raw materials on trade credit: $500,000
- Pay workers from cash in bank to make goods: $1,500,000
- Pay sales force from cash in bank to sell goods: $1,000,000
- Sell goods for cash: $3,500,000
To close the books for the month, we will adjust expenses and revenue to zero by appropriately crediting and debiting the income summary and then closing the income summary to retained earnings (part of equity).
These items are entered in the ledger below; each matching credit and debit have been numbered to make finding them in the ledger easier.
Ledgers
General Ledger (in 000s) | Transaction | Debit | Credit | Balance |
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| Expenses |
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| Balance forward | | | - | 1 Raw materials | $ 500 | | $ 500 | 2 Labor | $ 1500 | | $ 2000 | 3 Sales costs | $ 1000 | | $ 3000 | 5 Income summary | | $ 3000 | - | Total | $ 3000 | $ 3000 | | | Revenue |
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Balance forward | | | - | 4 Revenue from sales | | $ 3500 | $ 3500 | 6 Income summary | $ 3500 | | - | Total | $ 3500 | $ 3500 | | Cash |
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| Balance forward | | | $11000 | 2 Labor | | $ 1500 | $ 9500 | 3 Sales costs | | $ 1000 | $ 8500 | 4 Revenue from sales | $ 3500 | | $12000 | Total | $ 3500 | $ 2500 | | Accounts Payable |
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| Balance forward | | | $ 1000 | 1 Raw materials | | $ 500 | $ 1500 | Total | - | $ 500 | | Income summary |
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| Balance forward | | | - | 5 Expense | $ 3000 | | $ 3000 | 6 Revenue | | $ 3500 | $ 500 | 7 Retained earnings | $ 500 | | - | Total | $ 3500 | $ 3500 | | Retained earnings |
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| Balance forward | | | $10000 | | 7 Income summary | | $ 500 | $10500 | | Total | - | $ 500 | |
| Total all accounts: | $13500 | $13500 | |
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The amount in equity (in the form of retained earnings) has changed with a net credit of $500,000. Since equity has a normal balance of credit, this means there is now $500,000 more in equity than at the beginning of the month.
See also
External links
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