Dopaminergic
Encyclopedia
Dopaminergic means related to the neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that transmit signals from a neuron to a target cell across a synapse. Neurotransmitters are packaged into synaptic vesicles clustered beneath the membrane on the presynaptic side of a synapse, and are released into the synaptic cleft, where they bind to...
dopamine
Dopamine
Dopamine is a catecholamine neurotransmitter present in a wide variety of animals, including both vertebrates and invertebrates. In the brain, this substituted phenethylamine functions as a neurotransmitter, activating the five known types of dopamine receptors—D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5—and their...
. For example, certain protein
Protein
Proteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
s such as the dopamine transporter
Dopamine transporter
The dopamine transporter is a membrane-spanning protein that pumps the neurotransmitter dopamine out of the synapse back into cytosol, from which other transporters sequester DA and NE into vesicles for later storage and release...
(DAT), vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2), and dopamine receptor
Dopamine receptor
Dopamine receptors are a class of metabotropic G protein-coupled receptors that are prominent in the vertebrate central nervous system . The neurotransmitter dopamine is the primary endogenous ligand for dopamine receptors....
s can be classified as dopaminergic, and neuron
Neuron
A neuron is an electrically excitable cell that processes and transmits information by electrical and chemical signaling. Chemical signaling occurs via synapses, specialized connections with other cells. Neurons connect to each other to form networks. Neurons are the core components of the nervous...
s which synthesize
Biosynthesis
Biosynthesis is an enzyme-catalyzed process in cells of living organisms by which substrates are converted to more complex products. The biosynthesis process often consists of several enzymatic steps in which the product of one step is used as substrate in the following step...
or contain dopamine and synapse
Synapse
In the nervous system, a synapse is a structure that permits a neuron to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another cell...
s with dopamine receptors in them may also be labeled as dopaminergic. Enzyme
Enzyme
Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process, called substrates, are converted into different molecules, called products. Almost all chemical reactions in a biological cell need enzymes in order to occur at rates...
s which regulate the biosynthesis
Biosynthesis
Biosynthesis is an enzyme-catalyzed process in cells of living organisms by which substrates are converted to more complex products. The biosynthesis process often consists of several enzymatic steps in which the product of one step is used as substrate in the following step...
or metabolism
Metabolism
Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that happen in the cells of living organisms to sustain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolism is usually divided into two categories...
of dopamine such as aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase
Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase
Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase is a lyase enzyme.-Reactions:It catalyzes several different decarboxylation reactions:* L-DOPA to dopamine - a neurotransmitter* 5-HTP to serotonin - also a neurotransmitter...
(AAAD) or DOPA decarboxylase (DDC), monoamine oxidase
Monoamine oxidase
L-Monoamine oxidases are a family of enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of monoamines. They are found bound to the outer membrane of mitochondria in most cell types in the body. The enzyme was originally discovered by Mary Bernheim in the liver and was named tyramine oxidase...
(MAO), and catechol O-methyl transferase
Catechol-O-methyl transferase
Catechol-O-methyltransferase is one of several enzymes that degrade catecholamines such as dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine. In humans, catechol-O-methyltransferase protein is encoded by the COMT gene...
(COMT) may be referred to as dopaminergic as well. Lastly, any endogenous
Endogenous
Endogenous substances are those that originate from within an organism, tissue, or cell. Endogenous retroviruses are caused by ancient infections of germ cells in humans, mammals and other vertebrates...
or exogenous
Exogenous
Exogenous refers to an action or object coming from outside a system. It is the opposite of endogenous, something generated from within the system....
chemical substance
Chemical substance
In chemistry, a chemical substance is a form of matter that has constant chemical composition and characteristic properties. It cannot be separated into components by physical separation methods, i.e. without breaking chemical bonds. They can be solids, liquids or gases.Chemical substances are...
which acts to affect dopamine receptors or dopamine release through indirect actions (for example, on neurons that synapse onto neurons that release dopamine or express dopamine receptors) can also be said to have dopaminergic effects, two prominent examples being opioid
Opioid
An opioid is a psychoactive chemical that works by binding to opioid receptors, which are found principally in the central and peripheral nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract...
s which enhance dopamine release indirectly in the reward pathways, and amphetamines, which enhance dopamine release directly by binding to, and inhibiting VMAT2
VMAT2
The vesicular monoamine transporter 2 also known as solute carrier family 18 member 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC18A2 gene...
.
Supplements and drugs
A complete list of dopaminergic substanceChemical compound
A chemical compound is a pure chemical substance consisting of two or more different chemical elements that can be separated into simpler substances by chemical reactions. Chemical compounds have a unique and defined chemical structure; they consist of a fixed ratio of atoms that are held together...
s used as supplement
Dietary supplement
A dietary supplement, also known as food supplement or nutritional supplement, is a preparation intended to supplement the diet and provide nutrients, such as vitamins, minerals, fiber, fatty acids, or amino acids, that may be missing or may not be consumed in sufficient quantities in a person's diet...
s and drug
Drug
A drug, broadly speaking, is any substance that, when absorbed into the body of a living organism, alters normal bodily function. There is no single, precise definition, as there are different meanings in drug control law, government regulations, medicine, and colloquial usage.In pharmacology, a...
s includes:
- Dopamine (DA; Intropan, Inovan, Revivan, Rivimine, Dopastat, Dynatra, etc) itself, which is used in the treatment of severe hypotensionHypotensionIn physiology and medicine, hypotension is abnormally low blood pressure, especially in the arteries of the systemic circulation. It is best understood as a physiologic state, rather than a disease. It is often associated with shock, though not necessarily indicative of it. Hypotension is the...
, circulatory shock, and cardiac arrestCardiac arrestCardiac arrest, is the cessation of normal circulation of the blood due to failure of the heart to contract effectively...
as a vasopressor or antihypotensive agent.
- PrecursorPrecursor (chemistry)In chemistry, a precursor is a compound that participates in the chemical reaction that produces another compound. In biochemistry, the term "precursor" is used more specifically to refer to a chemical compound preceding another in a metabolic pathway....
s including L-phenylalanine (PHE), L-tyrosine (TYR), and L-DOPA (Levodopa; Sinemet, Parcopa, Atamet, Stalevo, Madopar, Prolopa, etc; also found in Mucuna pruriensMucuna pruriensMucuna pruriens is a tropical legume known as velvet bean or cowitch and by other common names , found in Africa, India and the Caribbean. The plant is infamous for its extreme itchiness produced on contact, particularly with the young foliage and the seed pods...
(Velvet Bean)), which are all used as dietary supplementDietary supplementA dietary supplement, also known as food supplement or nutritional supplement, is a preparation intended to supplement the diet and provide nutrients, such as vitamins, minerals, fiber, fatty acids, or amino acids, that may be missing or may not be consumed in sufficient quantities in a person's diet...
s, and the latter of which is also used in the treatment of Parkinson's diseaseParkinson's diseaseParkinson's disease is a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system...
(PD).
- CofactorCofactor (biochemistry)A cofactor is a non-protein chemical compound that is bound to a protein and is required for the protein's biological activity. These proteins are commonly enzymes, and cofactors can be considered "helper molecules" that assist in biochemical transformations....
s including ferrousFerrousFerrous , in chemistry, indicates a divalent iron compound , as opposed to ferric, which indicates a trivalent iron compound ....
ironIronIron is a chemical element with the symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series. It is the most common element forming the planet Earth as a whole, forming much of Earth's outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earth's crust...
(Fe2+), tetrahydrobiopterinTetrahydrobiopterinTetrahydrobiopterin or sapropterin is a naturally occurring essential cofactor of the three aromatic amino acid hydroxylase enzymes, used in the degradation of amino acid phenylalanine and in the biosynthesis of the neurotransmitters serotonin , melatonin, dopamine, norepinephrine ,...
(THB, BH4), vitamin B3 (niacinNiacin"Niacin" redirects here. For the neo-fusion band, see Niacin .Niacin is an organic compound with the formula and, depending on the definition used, one of the forty to eighty essential human nutrients.Niacin is one of five vitamins associated with a pandemic deficiency disease: niacin deficiency...
, niacinamide) → NADPH, vitamin B6Vitamin B6Vitamin B6 is a water-soluble vitamin and is part of the vitamin B complex group. Several forms of the vitamin are known, but pyridoxal phosphate is the active form and is a cofactor in many reactions of amino acid metabolism, including transamination, deamination, and decarboxylation...
(pyridoxinePyridoxinePyridoxine is one of the compounds that can be called vitamin B6, along with pyridoxal and pyridoxamine. It differs from pyridoxamine by the substituent at the '4' position. It is often used as 'pyridoxine hydrochloride'.-Chemistry:...
, pyridoxaminePyridoxaminePyridoxamine is a vitamer in the vitamin B6 family, which includes pyridoxal and pyridoxine. Pyridoxamine is converted to the biologically active form of vitamin B6, pyridoxal 5-phosphate, via the vitamin B6 salvage pathway. Vitamin B6 acts as an enzyme cofactor in a variety of metabolic processes...
, pyridoxalPyridoxalPyridoxal is one of the three natural forms of vitamin B6, along with pyridoxamine and pyridoxine . All of these forms are converted in the human body into a single biologically active form, pyridoxal 5-phosphate. All three forms of vitamin B6 are heterocyclic organic compounds...
→ pyridoxal phosphate (PLP), vitamin B9 (folic acidFolic acidFolic acid and folate , as well as pteroyl-L-glutamic acid, pteroyl-L-glutamate, and pteroylmonoglutamic acid are forms of the water-soluble vitamin B9...
) → tetrahydrofolic acidTetrahydrofolic acidTetrahydrofolic acid, or tetrahydrofolate, is a folic acid derivative.-Metabolism:-Human synthesis:It is produced from dihydrofolic acid by dihydrofolate reductase...
(THFA, H4FA), vitamin CVitamin CVitamin C or L-ascorbic acid or L-ascorbate is an essential nutrient for humans and certain other animal species. In living organisms ascorbate acts as an antioxidant by protecting the body against oxidative stress...
(ascorbic acidAscorbic acidAscorbic acid is a naturally occurring organic compound with antioxidant properties. It is a white solid, but impure samples can appear yellowish. It dissolves well in water to give mildly acidic solutions. Ascorbic acid is one form of vitamin C. The name is derived from a- and scorbutus , the...
), and zincZincZinc , or spelter , is a metallic chemical element; it has the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is the first element in group 12 of the periodic table. Zinc is, in some respects, chemically similar to magnesium, because its ion is of similar size and its only common oxidation state is +2...
(Zn2+), which are used as dietary supplementDietary supplementA dietary supplement, also known as food supplement or nutritional supplement, is a preparation intended to supplement the diet and provide nutrients, such as vitamins, minerals, fiber, fatty acids, or amino acids, that may be missing or may not be consumed in sufficient quantities in a person's diet...
s.
- Dopamine receptor agonists such as apomorphineApomorphineApomorphine is a non-selective dopamine agonist which activates both D1-like and D2-like receptors, with some preference for the latter subtypes. It is historically a morphine decomposition product by boiling with concentrated acid, hence the -morphine suffix...
(Apokyn, Uprima), bromocriptineBromocriptineBromocriptine , an ergoline derivative, is a dopamine agonist that is used in the treatment of pituitary tumors, Parkinson's disease , hyperprolactinaemia, neuroleptic malignant syndrome, and type 2 diabetes.- Indications :Amenorrhea, female infertility, galactorrhea, hypogonadism, and acromegaly...
(Parolodel), cabergolineCabergolineCabergoline , an ergot derivative, is a potent dopamine receptor agonist on D2 receptors. In vitro, rat studies show cabergoline has a direct inhibitory effect on pituitary lactotroph cells...
(Dostinex), dihydrexidineDihydrexidineDihydrexidine is a moderately selective full agonist at the dopamine D1 and D5 receptors. It has approximately 10-fold selectivity for D1 and D5 over the D2 receptor. Although dihydrexidine has some affinity for the D2 receptor, it has functionally selective D2 signaling, thereby explaining...
(LS-186,899), dopamineDopamineDopamine is a catecholamine neurotransmitter present in a wide variety of animals, including both vertebrates and invertebrates. In the brain, this substituted phenethylamine functions as a neurotransmitter, activating the five known types of dopamine receptors—D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5—and their...
(Intropin, Revivan), fenoldopamFenoldopamFenoldopam is a drug and synthetic benzazepine derivative which acts as a peripheral selective D1 receptor weak partial agonist/antagonist and is used as an antihypertensive. It was approved by the Food and Drug Administration in September 1997...
(Corlopam), piribedilPiribedilPiribedil is an antiparkinsonian agent and piperazine derivative which acts as a D2 and D3 receptor agonist...
(Trivastal), lisurideLisurideLisuride is an antiparkinson agent of the iso-ergoline class, chemically related to the dopaminergic ergoline Parkinson's drugs. Lisuride is described as free base and as hydrogen maleate salt.Lisuride is used to lower prolactin and, in low doses, to prevent migraine attacks...
(Dopergin), pergolidePergolidePergolide is an ergoline-based dopamine receptor agonist used in some countries for the treatment of Parkinson's disease....
(Permax), pramipexolePramipexolePramipexole is a non-ergoline dopamine agonist indicated for treating early-stage Parkinson's disease and restless legs syndrome...
(Mirapex), ropiniroleRopiniroleRopinirole is a non-ergoline dopamine agonist. It is manufactured by GlaxoSmithKline , Cipla and Sun Pharmaceutical. It is used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease...
(Requip), and rotigotineRotigotineRotigotine is a non-ergoline dopamine agonist indicated for the treatment of Parkinson's disease and restless legs syndrome in Europe and the United States...
(Neupro), which are used in the treatment of Parkinson's diseaseParkinson's diseaseParkinson's disease is a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system...
(PD), restless legs syndromeRestless legs syndromeRestless legs syndrome or Willis-Ekbom disease is a neurological disorder characterized by an irresistible urge to move one's body to stop uncomfortable or odd sensations. It most commonly affects the legs, but can affect the arms, torso, and even phantom limbs...
(RLS), hyperprolactinemia (HPA), and sexual dysfunctionSexual dysfunctionSexual dysfunction or sexual malfunction refers to a difficulty experienced by an individual or a couple during any stage of a normal sexual activity, including desire, arousal or orgasm....
(SD), as well as are being investigated in the treatment of depressionClinical depressionMajor depressive disorder is a mental disorder characterized by an all-encompassing low mood accompanied by low self-esteem, and by loss of interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities...
and anxietyAnxietyAnxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by somatic, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral components. The root meaning of the word anxiety is 'to vex or trouble'; in either presence or absence of psychological stress, anxiety can create feelings of fear, worry, uneasiness,...
as antidepressantAntidepressantAn antidepressant is a psychiatric medication used to alleviate mood disorders, such as major depression and dysthymia and anxiety disorders such as social anxiety disorder. According to Gelder, Mayou &*Geddes people with a depressive illness will experience a therapeutic effect to their mood;...
s and anxiolyticAnxiolyticAn anxiolytic is a drug used for the treatment of anxiety, and its related psychological and physical symptoms...
s, respectively.
- Dopamine receptor antagonists including typical antipsychoticTypical antipsychoticTypical antipsychotics are a class of antipsychotic drugs first developed in the 1950s and used to treat psychosis...
s such as chlorpromazineChlorpromazineChlorpromazine is a typical antipsychotic...
(Thorazine), fluphenazineFluphenazineFluphenazine is a typical antipsychotic drug used for the treatment of psychoses such as schizophrenia and acute manic phases of bipolar disorder. It belongs to the piperazine class of phenothiazines....
(Prolixin), haloperidolHaloperidolHaloperidol is a typical antipsychotic. It is in the butyrophenone class of antipsychotic medications and has pharmacological effects similar to the phenothiazines....
(Haldol), loxapineLoxapineLoxapine is a typical antipsychotic medication, used primarily in the treatment of schizophrenia. It is a member of the dibenzoxazepine class and as a dibenzazepine derivative, it is structurally related to clozapine...
(Loxitane), molindoneMolindoneMolindone is a therapeutic antipsychotic, used in the treatment of schizophrenia. It works by blocking the effects of dopamine in the brain, leading to diminished psychoses...
(Moban), perphenazinePerphenazinePerphenazine is a typical antipsychotic drug. Chemically, it is classified as a piperazinyl phenothiazine. It has been in clinical use for decades....
(Trilafon), pimozidePimozidePimozide is an antipsychotic drug of the diphenylbutylpiperidine class. It was discovered at Janssen Pharmaceutica in 1963. It has a high potency compared to chlorpromazine . On a weight basis it is even more potent than haloperidol. It also has special neurologic indications for Tourette syndrome...
(Orap), thioridazineThioridazineThioridazine is a piperidine typical antipsychotic drug belonging to the phenothiazine drug group and was previously widely used in the treatment of schizophrenia and psychosis...
(Mellaril), thiothixeneThiothixeneThiothixene is a typical antipsychotic drug of the thioxanthene class used in the treatment of psychoses like schizophrenia. It was introduced on July 24, 1967 by Pfizer.-Chemistry:*Bloom, B. M.; Muren, J. F.; 1967, See also:...
(Navane), and trifluoperazineTrifluoperazineTrifluoperazine is a typical antipsychotic of the phenothiazine chemical class.- Uses :...
(Stelazine), the atypical antipsychoticAtypical antipsychoticThe atypical antipsychotics are a group of antipsychotic tranquilizing drugs used to treat psychiatric conditions. Some atypical antipsychotics are FDA approved for use in the treatment of schizophrenia...
s such as amisulprideAmisulprideAmisulpride , is an atypical antipsychotic used to treat psychosis in schizophrenia and episodes of mania in bipolar disorder. In small doses it is also used to treat depression. It was introduced by Sanofi-Aventis in the 1990s.-Pharmacology:Amisulpride functions primarily as a D2 and D3 receptor...
(Solian), clozapineClozapineClozapine is an antipsychotic medication used in the treatment of schizophrenia, and is also used off-label in the treatment of bipolar disorder. Wyatt. R and Chew...
(Clozaril), olanzapineOlanzapineOlanzapine is an atypical antipsychotic, approved by the FDA for the treatment of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder...
(Zyprexa), quetiapineQuetiapineQuetiapine , is an atypical antipsychotic approved for the treatment of schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder....
(Seroquel), risperidoneRisperidoneRisperidone is a second generation or atypical antipsychotic, sold under the trade name . It is used to treat schizophrenia , schizoaffective disorder, the mixed and manic states associated with bipolar disorder, and irritability in people with autism...
(Risperdal), sulpirideSulpirideSulpiride is an...
(Dogmatil), and ziprasidoneZiprasidoneZiprasidone was the fifth atypical antipsychotic to gain FDA approval . In the United States, Ziprasidone is Food and Drug Administration approved for the treatment of schizophrenia, and the intramuscular injection form of ziprasidone is approved for acute agitation in schizophrenic patients...
(Geodon), and antiemeticAntiemeticAn antiemetic is a drug that is effective against vomiting and nausea. Antiemetics are typically used to treat motion sickness and the side effects of opioid analgesics, general anaesthetics, and chemotherapy directed against cancer....
s like domperidoneDomperidoneDomperidone is an antidopaminergic drug, developed by Janssen Pharmaceutica, and used orally, rectally or intravenously, generally to suppress nausea and vomiting, or as a prokinetic agent...
, metoclopramideMetoclopramideMetoclopramide is an antiemetic and gastroprokinetic agent. It is commonly used to treat nausea and vomiting, to facilitate gastric emptying in people with gastroparesis, and as a treatment for the gastric stasis often associated with migraine headaches.-Medical uses:Metoclopramide is commonly...
(Reglan), and prochlorperazineProchlorperazineProchlorperazine is a dopamine receptor antagonist that belongs to the phenothiazine class of antipsychotic agents that are used for the antiemetic treatment of nausea and vertigo. It is also a highly-potent typical antipsychotic, 10-20x more potent than chlorpromazine...
(Compazine), among others, which are used in the treatment of schizophreniaSchizophreniaSchizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by a disintegration of thought processes and of emotional responsiveness. It most commonly manifests itself as auditory hallucinations, paranoid or bizarre delusions, or disorganized speech and thinking, and it is accompanied by significant social...
(SCZ) and bipolar disorderBipolar disorderBipolar disorder or bipolar affective disorder, historically known as manic–depressive disorder, is a psychiatric diagnosis that describes a category of mood disorders defined by the presence of one or more episodes of abnormally elevated energy levels, cognition, and mood with or without one or...
(BD) as antipsychoticAntipsychoticAn antipsychotic is a tranquilizing psychiatric medication primarily used to manage psychosis , particularly in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. A first generation of antipsychotics, known as typical antipsychotics, was discovered in the 1950s...
s, and nauseaNauseaNausea , is a sensation of unease and discomfort in the upper stomach with an involuntary urge to vomit. It often, but not always, precedes vomiting...
and vomitingVomitingVomiting is the forceful expulsion of the contents of one's stomach through the mouth and sometimes the nose...
.
- Dopamine reuptake inhibitorDopamine reuptake inhibitorA dopamine reuptake inhibitor is a type of drug that acts as a reuptake inhibitor for the neurotransmitter dopamine by blocking the action of the dopamine transporter...
s (DRIs) or dopamine transporterDopamine transporterThe dopamine transporter is a membrane-spanning protein that pumps the neurotransmitter dopamine out of the synapse back into cytosol, from which other transporters sequester DA and NE into vesicles for later storage and release...
(DAT) inhibitors such as methylphenidateMethylphenidateMethylphenidate is a psychostimulant drug approved for treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome and narcolepsy. It may also be prescribed for off-label use in treatment-resistant cases of lethargy, depression, neural insult and obesity...
(Ritalin, Focalin, Concerta), bupropionBupropionBupropion is an atypical antidepressant and smoking cessation aid. The drug is a non-tricyclic antidepressant and differs from most commonly prescribed antidepressants such as SSRIs, as its primary pharmacological action is thought to be norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibition...
(Wellbutrin, Zyban), amineptineAmineptineAmineptine was developed by the French Society of Medical research in the 1960s. Under the trade-names is used as an atypical tricyclic antidepressant that selectively inhibits the reuptake of dopamine and to a lesser extent norepinephrine, thus exerting a powerful and fast-acting...
(Survector, Maneon, Directin), and nomifensineNomifensineNomifensine is a norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor developed by a team at Hoechst AG in the 1960s.. The drug was test-marketed in the United States by Hoechst AG , i.e. a drug that increases the amount of synaptic norepinephrine and dopamine available to receptors by blocking the dopamine...
(Merital, Alival), as well as cocaineCocaineCocaine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. The name comes from "coca" in addition to the alkaloid suffix -ine, forming cocaine. It is a stimulant of the central nervous system, an appetite suppressant, and a topical anesthetic...
("Coke", "Crack", etc), methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV; "Sonic"), ketamineKetamineKetamine is a drug used in human and veterinary medicine. Its hydrochloride salt is sold as Ketanest, Ketaset, and Ketalar. Pharmacologically, ketamine is classified as an NMDA receptor antagonist...
(K; Ketalar, Ketanest, Ketaset; "Special-K", "Kit Kat", etc), and phencyclidinePhencyclidinePhencyclidine , commonly initialized as PCP and known colloquially as angel dust, is a recreational dissociative drug...
(PCP; Sernyl; "Angel Dust", "Rocket Fuel", etc), among others, which are used in the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorderAttention-deficit hyperactivity disorderAttention deficit hyperactivity disorder is a developmental disorder. It is primarily characterized by "the co-existence of attentional problems and hyperactivity, with each behavior occurring infrequently alone" and symptoms starting before seven years of age.ADHD is the most commonly studied and...
(ADHD) and narcolepsyNarcolepsyNarcolepsy is a chronic sleep disorder, or dyssomnia, characterized by excessive sleepiness and sleep attacks at inappropriate times, such as while at work. People with narcolepsy often experience disturbed nocturnal sleep and an abnormal daytime sleep pattern, which often is confused with insomnia...
as psychostimulants, obesityObesityObesity is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it may have an adverse effect on health, leading to reduced life expectancy and/or increased health problems...
as anorecticAnorecticAn anorectic or anorexic , also known as anorexigenic or appetite suppressant, is a dietary supplement and/or drug which reduces appetite, food consumption, and as a result, causes weight loss to occur.-List of anorectics:Numerous pharmaceutical compounds are marketed as appetite suppressants.The...
s, depressionClinical depressionMajor depressive disorder is a mental disorder characterized by an all-encompassing low mood accompanied by low self-esteem, and by loss of interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities...
and anxietyAnxietyAnxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by somatic, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral components. The root meaning of the word anxiety is 'to vex or trouble'; in either presence or absence of psychological stress, anxiety can create feelings of fear, worry, uneasiness,...
as antidepressantAntidepressantAn antidepressant is a psychiatric medication used to alleviate mood disorders, such as major depression and dysthymia and anxiety disorders such as social anxiety disorder. According to Gelder, Mayou &*Geddes people with a depressive illness will experience a therapeutic effect to their mood;...
s and anxiolyticAnxiolyticAn anxiolytic is a drug used for the treatment of anxiety, and its related psychological and physical symptoms...
s, respectively, drug addiction as anticraving agents, and sexual dysfunctionSexual dysfunctionSexual dysfunction or sexual malfunction refers to a difficulty experienced by an individual or a couple during any stage of a normal sexual activity, including desire, arousal or orgasm....
, as well as illicitIllicitIllicit may refer to:* illicit antiquities* illicit drug trade** illicit drug use** Illicit Drug Anti-Proliferation Act* illicit major* illicit minor* illicit work* Illicit Streetwear clothing company* Illicit...
street drugs.
- Dopamine releasing agentReleasing agentA releasing agent , or simply releaser, is a drug that induces the release of a neurotransmitter from the presynaptic neuron into the synapse, leading to an increase in the extracellular concentrations of the neurotransmitter. Many drugs use neurotransmitter release to exert their psychological and...
s (DRAs) such as amphetamineAmphetamineAmphetamine or amfetamine is a psychostimulant drug of the phenethylamine class which produces increased wakefulness and focus in association with decreased fatigue and appetite.Brand names of medications that contain, or metabolize into, amphetamine include Adderall, Dexedrine, Dextrostat,...
(Adderall, Dexedrine; "Speed"), lisdexamfetamine (Vyvanse), methamphetamineMethamphetamineMethamphetamine is a psychostimulant of the phenethylamine and amphetamine class of psychoactive drugs...
(Desoxyn; "Meth", "Crank", "Crystal", etc), methylenedioxymethamphetamineMethylenedioxymethamphetamineMDMA is an entactogenic drug of the phenethylamine and amphetamine class of drugs. In popular culture, MDMA has become widely known as "ecstasy" , usually referring to its street pill form, although this term may also include the presence of possible adulterants...
(MDMA; "Ecstasy", "E", "X", "XTC", etc), phenmetrazinePhenmetrazinePhenmetrazine is a stimulant drug of the morpholine chemical class that was previously used as an appetite suppressant, but has since been withdrawn from the market...
(Preludin; "Prellies"), pemolinePemolinePemoline was first synthesized in 1913 but it's activity was not discovered until the 1930s. Under the names it was used as a medication used to treat attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and narcolepsy. Under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, it is a Schedule IV drug...
(Cylert), 4-methylaminorex (4-MAR; "Ice", "Euphoria", etc), and benzylpiperazineBenzylpiperazineBenzylpiperazine is a recreational drug with euphoric, stimulant properties. The effects produced by BZP are comparable to those produced by amphetamine. Adverse effects have been reported following its use including acute psychosis, renal toxicity, and seizures...
(BZP; "Bennies", "A2", "Sunrise", "Frenzy", etc), among many others, which, like DRIs, are used in the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorderAttention-deficit hyperactivity disorderAttention deficit hyperactivity disorder is a developmental disorder. It is primarily characterized by "the co-existence of attentional problems and hyperactivity, with each behavior occurring infrequently alone" and symptoms starting before seven years of age.ADHD is the most commonly studied and...
(ADHD) and narcolepsyNarcolepsyNarcolepsy is a chronic sleep disorder, or dyssomnia, characterized by excessive sleepiness and sleep attacks at inappropriate times, such as while at work. People with narcolepsy often experience disturbed nocturnal sleep and an abnormal daytime sleep pattern, which often is confused with insomnia...
as psychostimulants, obesityObesityObesity is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it may have an adverse effect on health, leading to reduced life expectancy and/or increased health problems...
as anorecticAnorecticAn anorectic or anorexic , also known as anorexigenic or appetite suppressant, is a dietary supplement and/or drug which reduces appetite, food consumption, and as a result, causes weight loss to occur.-List of anorectics:Numerous pharmaceutical compounds are marketed as appetite suppressants.The...
s, depressionClinical depressionMajor depressive disorder is a mental disorder characterized by an all-encompassing low mood accompanied by low self-esteem, and by loss of interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities...
and anxietyAnxietyAnxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by somatic, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral components. The root meaning of the word anxiety is 'to vex or trouble'; in either presence or absence of psychological stress, anxiety can create feelings of fear, worry, uneasiness,...
as antidepressantAntidepressantAn antidepressant is a psychiatric medication used to alleviate mood disorders, such as major depression and dysthymia and anxiety disorders such as social anxiety disorder. According to Gelder, Mayou &*Geddes people with a depressive illness will experience a therapeutic effect to their mood;...
s and anxiolyticAnxiolyticAn anxiolytic is a drug used for the treatment of anxiety, and its related psychological and physical symptoms...
s, respectively, drug addiction as anticraving agents, and sexual dysfunctionSexual dysfunctionSexual dysfunction or sexual malfunction refers to a difficulty experienced by an individual or a couple during any stage of a normal sexual activity, including desire, arousal or orgasm....
, as well as illicitIllicitIllicit may refer to:* illicit antiquities* illicit drug trade** illicit drug use** Illicit Drug Anti-Proliferation Act* illicit major* illicit minor* illicit work* Illicit Streetwear clothing company* Illicit...
street drugs.
- Dopamine activity enhancers such as BPAP(-)-1-(Benzofuran-2-yl)-2-propylaminopentaneBPAP may also refer to the mode of mechanical ventilation known as BPAP or BPAP-1--2-propylaminopentane is a drug with an unusual effects profile...
and PPAP(-)-1-Phenyl-2-propylaminopentane-1-Phenyl-2-propylaminopentane is a drug with an unusual effects profile. It can loosely be grouped with the stimulant or antidepressant drug families, but its mechanism of action is quite different....
, which are currently only research chemicals, but are being investigated for clinical developmentDrug developmentDrug development is a blanket term used to define the process of bringing a new drug to the market once a lead compound has been identified through the process of drug discovery...
in the treatment of a number of medical disorders.
- Vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) inhibitors such as reserpineReserpineReserpine is an indole alkaloid antipsychotic and antihypertensive drug that has been used for the control of high blood pressure and for the relief of psychotic symptoms, although because of the development of better drugs for these purposes and because of its numerous side-effects, it is rarely...
(Serpasil), tetrabenazineTetrabenazineTetrabenazine is a drug for the symptomatic treatment of hyperkinetic movement disorder and is marketed under the trade names Nitoman in Canada and Xenazine in New Zealand and some parts of Europe, and is also available in the USA as an orphan drug. On August 15, 2008 the U.S...
(Nitoman, Xenazine), and deserpidineDeserpidineDeserpidine is an antihypertensive drug related to reserpine.-References:...
(Harmonyl), which are used as sympatholyticSympatholyticA sympatholytic drug is a medication which inhibits the postganglionic functioning of the sympathetic nervous system . They are indicated for various functions, for example they may be used as antihypertensives...
s or antihypertensiveAntihypertensiveThe antihypertensives are a class of drugs that are used to treat hypertension . Evidence suggests that reduction of the blood pressure by 5 mmHg can decrease the risk of stroke by 34%, of ischaemic heart disease by 21%, and reduce the likelihood of dementia, heart failure, and mortality from...
s, and in the past as antipsychoticAntipsychoticAn antipsychotic is a tranquilizing psychiatric medication primarily used to manage psychosis , particularly in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. A first generation of antipsychotics, known as typical antipsychotics, was discovered in the 1950s...
s.
- Monoamine oxidaseMonoamine oxidaseL-Monoamine oxidases are a family of enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of monoamines. They are found bound to the outer membrane of mitochondria in most cell types in the body. The enzyme was originally discovered by Mary Bernheim in the liver and was named tyramine oxidase...
(MAO) inhibitorMonoamine oxidase inhibitorMonoamine oxidase inhibitors are a class of antidepressant drugs prescribed for the treatment of depression. They are particularly effective in treating atypical depression....
s (MAOIs) including nonselectiveFunctional SelectivityFunctional selectivity is the ligand-dependent selectivity for certain signal transduction pathways in one and the same receptor. This can be present when a receptor has several possible signal transduction pathways...
agents such as phenelzinePhenelzinePhenelzine is a non-selective and irreversible monoamine oxidase inhibitor of the hydrazine class which is used as an antidepressant and anxiolytic...
(Nardil), tranylcypromineTranylcypromineTranylcypromine is a drug of the substituted phenethylamine and amphetamine classes which acts as a monoamine oxidase inhibitor —it is a non-selective and irreversible inhibitor of the enzyme monoamine oxidase...
(Parnate), and isocarboxazidIsocarboxazidIsocarboxazid is an irreversible and nonselective monoamine oxidase inhibitor of the hydrazine chemical class used as an antidepressant and anxiolytic...
(Marplan), MAOA selectiveFunctional SelectivityFunctional selectivity is the ligand-dependent selectivity for certain signal transduction pathways in one and the same receptor. This can be present when a receptor has several possible signal transduction pathways...
agents like moclobemideMoclobemideMoclobemide is a monoamine oxidase inhibitor drug primarily used to treat depression and social anxiety. Although clinical trials with the medicine began in 1977, it is not approved for use in the United States...
(Aurorix, Manerix), and MAOB selectiveFunctional SelectivityFunctional selectivity is the ligand-dependent selectivity for certain signal transduction pathways in one and the same receptor. This can be present when a receptor has several possible signal transduction pathways...
agents such as selegilineSelegilineSelegiline is a drug used for the treatment of early-stage Parkinson's disease, depression and senile dementia. In normal clinical doses it is a selective irreversible MAO-B inhibitor, however in larger doses it loses its specificity and also inhibits MAO-A...
(Eldepryl, Zelapar, Emsam), rasagilineRasagilineRasagiline is an irreversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase used as a monotherapy in early Parkinson's disease or as an adjunct therapy in more advanced cases. It is selective for MAO type B over type A by a factor of fourteen....
(Azilect), and pargylinePargylinePargyline is an irreversible monoamine oxidase B inhibitor. It has antihypertensive effects.- Pharmacology :It functions by inhibiting the metabolism of catecholamines and tyramine within presynaptic nerve terminals...
(Eutonyl), as well as the harmala alkaloidHarmala alkaloidSeveral alkaloids that function as monoamine oxidase inhibitors are found in the seeds of Peganum harmala , including harmine, harmaline, and harmalol, which are members of a group of substances with a similar chemical structure collectively known as harmala alkaloids...
s like harmineHarmineHarmine is a fluorescent harmala alkaloid belonging to the beta-carboline family of compounds. It occurs in a number of different plants, most notably the Middle Eastern plant harmal or Syrian rue and the South American vine Banisteriopsis caapi...
, harmalineHarmalineHarmaline is a fluorescent psychoactive indole alkaloid from the group of harmala alkaloids and beta-carbolines. It is the reduced hydrogenated form of harmine.-Occurrence in nature:...
, tetrahydroharmine, harmalol, harmanHarmala alkaloidSeveral alkaloids that function as monoamine oxidase inhibitors are found in the seeds of Peganum harmala , including harmine, harmaline, and harmalol, which are members of a group of substances with a similar chemical structure collectively known as harmala alkaloids...
, and norharman, which are found to varying degrees in Nicotiana tabacumNicotiana tabacumNicotiana tabacum, or cultivated tobacco, is a perennial herbaceous plant. It is found only in cultivation, where it is the most commonly grown of all plants in the Nicotiana genus, and its leaves are commercially grown in many countries to be processed into tobacco. It grows to heights between 1...
(Tobacco; also cigaretteCigaretteA cigarette is a small roll of finely cut tobacco leaves wrapped in a cylinder of thin paper for smoking. The cigarette is ignited at one end and allowed to smoulder; its smoke is inhaled from the other end, which is held in or to the mouth and in some cases a cigarette holder may be used as well...
s, cigarCigarA cigar is a tightly-rolled bundle of dried and fermented tobacco that is ignited so that its smoke may be drawn into the mouth. Cigar tobacco is grown in significant quantities in Brazil, Cameroon, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Honduras, Indonesia, Mexico, Nicaragua, Philippines, and the Eastern...
s, chewChewing tobaccoChewing tobacco Chewing tobacco Chewing tobacco (also known colloquially as hoobastank, backy, tobac, doogooos,Hogleg, chewpoos, chits, chewsky, chawsky, dip, flab, chowers, guy, or a wad, as well as referred to as dipsky, snuff, a pinch, a yopper, a Packing a bomb, a tobbackey or packing a...
, hookahHookahA hookah A hookah(Gujarati હૂકાહ) A hookah(Gujarati હૂકાહ) (Hindustani: हुक़्क़ा (Devanagari, (Nastaleeq) huqqah) also known as a waterpipe or narghile, is a single or multi-stemmed (often glass-based) instrument for smoking in which the smoke is cooled by water. The tobacco smoked is referred to...
, etc), Banisteriopsis caapiBanisteriopsis caapiBanisteriopsis caapi, also known as Ayahuasca, Caapi or Yage, is a South American jungle vine of the family Malpighiaceae. It is used to prepare Ayahuasca, a decoction that has a long history of entheogenic uses as a medicine and "plant teacher" among the indigenous peoples of the Amazon Rainforest...
(Ayahausca, Caapi, Yage), Peganum harmala (Harmal, Syrian Rue), Passiflora incarnataPassiflora incarnataPassiflora incarnata, commonly known as maypop, purple passionflower, true passionflower, wild apricot, and wild passion vine, is a fast growing perennial vine with climbing or trailing stems. A member of the passionflower genus Passiflora, the maypop has large, intricate flowers with prominent...
(Passion Flower), and Tribulus terrestrisTribulus terrestrisTribulus terrestris is a flowering plant in the family Zygophyllaceae, native to warm temperate and tropical regions of the Old World in southern Europe, southern Asia, throughout Africa, and Australia. It can thrive even in desert climates and poor soil...
(Puncture Vine), among others, which are used in the treatment of depression and anxietyAnxietyAnxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by somatic, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral components. The root meaning of the word anxiety is 'to vex or trouble'; in either presence or absence of psychological stress, anxiety can create feelings of fear, worry, uneasiness,...
as antidepressantAntidepressantAn antidepressant is a psychiatric medication used to alleviate mood disorders, such as major depression and dysthymia and anxiety disorders such as social anxiety disorder. According to Gelder, Mayou &*Geddes people with a depressive illness will experience a therapeutic effect to their mood;...
s and anxiolyticAnxiolyticAn anxiolytic is a drug used for the treatment of anxiety, and its related psychological and physical symptoms...
s, respectively, in the treatment of Parkinson's diseaseParkinson's diseaseParkinson's disease is a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system...
(PD) and dementiaDementiaDementia is a serious loss of cognitive ability in a previously unimpaired person, beyond what might be expected from normal aging...
, and for the recreationalRecreational drug useRecreational drug use is the use of a drug, usually psychoactive, with the intention of creating or enhancing recreational experience. Such use is controversial, however, often being considered to be also drug abuse, and it is often illegal...
purpose of boosting the effects of certain drugDrugA drug, broadly speaking, is any substance that, when absorbed into the body of a living organism, alters normal bodily function. There is no single, precise definition, as there are different meanings in drug control law, government regulations, medicine, and colloquial usage.In pharmacology, a...
s like phenethylaminePhenethylaminePhenylethylamine or phenethylamine is a natural monoamine alkaloid, trace amine, and also the name of a class of chemicals with many members well known for psychoactive drug and stimulant effects. Studies suggest that phenylethylamine functions as a neuromodulator or neurotransmitter in the...
(PEA) and psychedelicPsychedelic drugA psychedelic substance is a psychoactive drug whose primary action is to alter cognition and perception. Psychedelics are part of a wider class of psychoactive drugs known as hallucinogens, a class that also includes related substances such as dissociatives and deliriants...
s like dimethyltryptamineDimethyltryptamineN,N-Dimethyltryptamine is a naturally occurring psychedelic compound of the tryptamine family. DMT is found in several plants, and also in trace amounts in humans and other mammals, where it is originally derived from the essential amino acid tryptophan, and ultimately produced by the enzyme INMT...
(DMT) via inhibiting their metabolismMetabolismMetabolism is the set of chemical reactions that happen in the cells of living organisms to sustain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolism is usually divided into two categories...
.
- Catechol O-methyl transferaseCatechol-O-methyl transferaseCatechol-O-methyltransferase is one of several enzymes that degrade catecholamines such as dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine. In humans, catechol-O-methyltransferase protein is encoded by the COMT gene...
(COMT) inhibitorCOMT inhibitorA COMT inhibitor is a drug that inhibits the action of catechol-O-methyl transferase. This enzyme is involved in degrading neurotransmitters. COMT inhibitors are used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease....
s such as entacaponeEntacaponeEntacapone is a drug that functions as a catechol-O-methyl transferase inhibitor. It is used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease....
(Comtan, Stalevo) and tolcaponeTolcaponeTolcapone is a drug that inhibits the enzyme catechol-O-methyl transferase . - Uses :Tolcapone is used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease as an adjunct to levodopa/carbidopa medication.- Chemistry :...
(Tasmar), which are used in the treatment of Parkinson's diseaseParkinson's diseaseParkinson's disease is a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system...
(PD).
- Dopamine β-hydroxylase (DBH) inhibitors like disulfiramDisulfiramDisulfiram is a drug discovered in the 1920s and used to support the treatment of chronic alcoholism by producing an acute sensitivity to alcohol. Trade names for disulfiram in different countries are Antabuse and Antabus manufactured by Odyssey Pharmaceuticals...
(Antabuse), which is used in the treatment of drug addiction as an anticraving agent.
- Phenylalanine hydroxylasePhenylalanine hydroxylasePhenylalanine hydroxylase is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydroxylation of the aromatic side-chain of phenylalanine to generate tyrosine. PheOH is one of three members of the pterin-dependent amino acid hydroxylases, a class of monooxygenase that uses tetrahydrobiopterin and a non-heme iron for...
(PAH) inhibitors like 3,4-dihydroxystyrene3,4-Dihydroxystyrene3,4-Dihydroxystyrene is a centrally-acting inhibitor of the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase . It is likely that DHS and other PH inhibitors will never have clinical applications on account of their capacity for inducing hyperphenylalaninemia and phenylketonuria.- References :...
(DHS) which is currently only a research chemical with no suitable therapeutic indications, likely on account of the fact that such drugs would induce the potentially highly dangerous hyperphenylalaninemia (HPA) and/or phenylketonuriaPhenylketonuriaPhenylketonuria is an autosomal recessive metabolic genetic disorder characterized by a mutation in the gene for the hepatic enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase , rendering it nonfunctional. This enzyme is necessary to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine to the amino acid tyrosine...
(PKU).
- Tyrosine hydroxylaseTyrosine hydroxylaseTyrosine hydroxylase or tyrosine 3-monooxygenase is the enzyme responsible for catalyzing the conversion of the amino acid L-tyrosine to dihydroxyphenylalanine . It does so using tetrahydrobiopterin as a coenzyme. DOPA is a precursor for dopamine, which, in turn, is a precursor for norepinephrine ...
(TH) inhibitors like metirosineMetirosineMetirosine is an antihypertensive drug. It inhibits the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase and, therefore, catecholamine synthesis, which, as a consequence, depletes the levels of the catecholamines dopamine, adrenaline and noradrenaline in the body.-Clinical use:Metirosine has been used in the treatment...
(Demser), which is used in the treatment of pheochromocytomaPheochromocytomaA pheochromocytoma or phaeochromocytoma is a neuroendocrine tumor of the medulla of the adrenal glands , or extra-adrenal chromaffin tissue that failed to involute after birth and secretes excessive amounts of catecholamines, usually noradrenaline , and adrenaline to a lesser extent...
(PCC) as a sympatholyticSympatholyticA sympatholytic drug is a medication which inhibits the postganglionic functioning of the sympathetic nervous system . They are indicated for various functions, for example they may be used as antihypertensives...
or antihypertensiveAntihypertensiveThe antihypertensives are a class of drugs that are used to treat hypertension . Evidence suggests that reduction of the blood pressure by 5 mmHg can decrease the risk of stroke by 34%, of ischaemic heart disease by 21%, and reduce the likelihood of dementia, heart failure, and mortality from...
agent.
- Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylaseAromatic L-amino acid decarboxylaseAromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase is a lyase enzyme.-Reactions:It catalyzes several different decarboxylation reactions:* L-DOPA to dopamine - a neurotransmitter* 5-HTP to serotonin - also a neurotransmitter...
(AAAD) or DOPA decarboxylase (DDC) inhibitorDopa decarboxylase inhibitorAn aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase inhibitor is a drug which inhibits the synthesis of dopamine by the enzyme aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase ....
s including benserazideBenserazideBenserazide is a peripherally-acting aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase or DOPA decarboxylase inhibitor, which is unable to cross the blood-brain barrier.- Indications :...
(Prolopa, Madopar, etc), carbidopaCarbidopaCarbidopa is a drug given to people with Parkinson's disease in order to inhibit peripheral metabolism of levodopa.- Pharmacology :...
(Lodosyn, Atamet, Parcopa, Sinemet, Stalevo, etc), and methyldopaMethyldopaMethyldopa is an alpha-adrenergic agonist psychoactive drug used as a sympatholytic or antihypertensive. Its use is now mostly deprecated following the introduction of alternative safer classes of agents...
(Aldomet, Aldoril, Dopamet, Dopegyt, etc), which are used in the treatment of Parkinson's diseaseParkinson's diseaseParkinson's disease is a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system...
(PD) in augmentation of L-DOPA ((Levodopa; Sinemet, Parcopa, Atamet, Stalevo, Madopar, Prolopa, etc)) to block the peripheralPeripheralA peripheral is a device attached to a host computer, but not part of it, and is more or less dependent on the host. It expands the host's capabilities, but does not form part of the core computer architecture....
conversion of dopamineDopamineDopamine is a catecholamine neurotransmitter present in a wide variety of animals, including both vertebrates and invertebrates. In the brain, this substituted phenethylamine functions as a neurotransmitter, activating the five known types of dopamine receptors—D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5—and their...
thereby inhibiting undesirable side effectAdverse effectIn medicine, an adverse effect is a harmful and undesired effect resulting from a medication or other intervention such as surgery.An adverse effect may be termed a "side effect", when judged to be secondary to a main or therapeutic effect. If it results from an unsuitable or incorrect dosage or...
s, and as sympatholyticSympatholyticA sympatholytic drug is a medication which inhibits the postganglionic functioning of the sympathetic nervous system . They are indicated for various functions, for example they may be used as antihypertensives...
or antihypertensiveAntihypertensiveThe antihypertensives are a class of drugs that are used to treat hypertension . Evidence suggests that reduction of the blood pressure by 5 mmHg can decrease the risk of stroke by 34%, of ischaemic heart disease by 21%, and reduce the likelihood of dementia, heart failure, and mortality from...
agents.
- Others such as hyperforinHyperforinHyperforin is a phytochemical produced by some of the members of the plant genus Hypericum, notably Hypericum perforatum .- Occurrence :...
and adhyperforinAdhyperforinAdhyperforin is a phytochemical found in the members of the plant genus Hypericum including St. John's Wort. It has a very similar pharmacological profile to hyperforin and acts as a TRPC6 ion channel activator, thereby inhibiting the reuptake of various neurotransmitters including serotonin,...
(both found in Hypericum perforatum (St. John's Wort (SJW))), L-theanine (found in Camellia sinensisCamellia sinensisCamellia sinensis is the species of plant whose leaves and leaf buds are used to produce Chinese tea. It is of the genus Camellia , a genus of flowering plants in the family Theaceae. White tea, green tea, oolong, pu-erh tea and black tea are all harvested from this species, but are processed...
(Tea Plant, also known as BlackBlack teaBlack tea is a variety of tea that is more oxidized than the oolong, green, and white varieties.All four varieties are made from leaves of the shrub Camellia sinensis. Black tea is generally stronger in flavor and contains more caffeine than the less oxidized teas. Two principal varieties of the...
, WhiteWhite teaWhite tea is a lightly oxidized tea grown and harvested almost exclusively in China, primarily in the Fujian province.White tea comes from the delicate buds and younger leaves of the Chinese Camellia sinensis plant. These buds and leaves are allowed to wither in natural sunlight before they are...
, OolongOolongOolong is a traditional Chinese tea produced through a unique process including withering under the strong sun and oxidation before curling and twisting. Most oolong teas, especially those of fine quality, involve unique tea plant cultivars that are exclusively used for particular varieties...
, Pu-erhPu-erh teaPu'er, Pu-erh, Puer, also Po Lei or Bolay is a variety of post-fermented tea produced in Yunnan province, China. Post-fermentation is a tea production style in which the tea leaves undergo a microbial fermentation process after they are dried and rolled. This is a Chinese specialty and is sometimes...
, or Green TeaGreen teaGreen tea is made solely from the leaves of Camellia sinensis that have undergone minimal oxidation during processing. Green tea originates from China and has become associated with many cultures throughout Asia. It has recently become more widespread in the West, where black tea is traditionally...
)), and S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAMe), which are all dietary supplementDietary supplementA dietary supplement, also known as food supplement or nutritional supplement, is a preparation intended to supplement the diet and provide nutrients, such as vitamins, minerals, fiber, fatty acids, or amino acids, that may be missing or may not be consumed in sufficient quantities in a person's diet...
s used mainly for the remedification of depression and anxietyAnxietyAnxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by somatic, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral components. The root meaning of the word anxiety is 'to vex or trouble'; in either presence or absence of psychological stress, anxiety can create feelings of fear, worry, uneasiness,...
as antidepressantAntidepressantAn antidepressant is a psychiatric medication used to alleviate mood disorders, such as major depression and dysthymia and anxiety disorders such as social anxiety disorder. According to Gelder, Mayou &*Geddes people with a depressive illness will experience a therapeutic effect to their mood;...
s and anxiolyticAnxiolyticAn anxiolytic is a drug used for the treatment of anxiety, and its related psychological and physical symptoms...
s, respectively.
See also
- Cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript (CART)