Discourses on Livy
Encyclopedia
The Discourses on Livy is a work of political history and philosophy written in the early 16th century (ca. 1517) by the Italian writer and political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli
, best known as the author of The Prince
. Where the latter is nominally devoted to advising the ruler of a principality
, in other words a type of monarchy
, the Discourses purport to explain the structure and benefits of a republic
, a form of government based on some level of popular consent and control.
Machiavelli dedicated this work to Zanobi Buondelmonti and Cosimo Rucellai, two of the greatest exponents of the Orti Oricellari in Florence, where aristocratic young people met in order to discuss politics, art and literature.
observations about great men. Machiavelli wrote the Discourses in the form of a longer commentary on Livy
's work on the history of Ancient Rome
, Ab Urbe condita
. However, both books include empirical observations—particularly from the political landscape of Renaissance Italy
—and historical generalizations. Machiavelli himself does not make a sharp distinction between the two methods of inquiry, as he thinks that all ages are fundamentally similar. Machiavelli seeks to use both methods to discover the laws of motion in human affairs, which he indicates are as unchanging as those of heaven, the sun and the elements.
The text is composed of three books. In Book I Machiavelli focuses on the internal structure of the republic. Book II is about matters of warfare. Book III is perhaps most similar to the teachings of The Prince, as it concerns individual leadership. The three books combined provide guidance to those trying to establish or reform a republic. However, his advice is (after Machiavelli's fashion) rather unorthodox, including a very long section on conspiracies, and seemingly providing advice to people seeking to overthrow a republic as well as those trying to establish one.
Although the formal title of the text translates as Discourses on the First Ten Books of Livy, Machiavelli makes liberal references and allusions to the other surviving books of Ab Urbe conditia, as well as to other works of classical literature. He particularly makes jibes—mainly indirect—at Aristotle
's Politics
. He also cites examples from especially Polybius
and Plutarch
, as well as Xenophon
. There is also much implicit criticism of medieval prejudices against early Rome, deriving from such influential patristic works as Augustine's
City of God.
, Machiavelli's friend, read the book and wrote critical notes (Considerazioni) on many of the chapters. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
considered the Discourses (as well as the Florentine Histories
) to be more representative of Machiavelli's true philosophy:
Niccolò Machiavelli
Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli was an Italian historian, philosopher, humanist, and writer based in Florence during the Renaissance. He is one of the main founders of modern political science. He was a diplomat, political philosopher, playwright, and a civil servant of the Florentine Republic...
, best known as the author of The Prince
The Prince
The Prince is a political treatise by the Italian diplomat, historian and political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli. From correspondence a version appears to have been distributed in 1513, using a Latin title, De Principatibus . But the printed version was not published until 1532, five years after...
. Where the latter is nominally devoted to advising the ruler of a principality
Principality
A principality is a monarchical feudatory or sovereign state, ruled or reigned over by a monarch with the title of prince or princess, or by a monarch with another title within the generic use of the term prince....
, in other words a type of monarchy
Monarchy
A monarchy is a form of government in which the office of head of state is usually held until death or abdication and is often hereditary and includes a royal house. In some cases, the monarch is elected...
, the Discourses purport to explain the structure and benefits of a republic
Republic
A republic is a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people. In modern times, a common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of...
, a form of government based on some level of popular consent and control.
Machiavelli dedicated this work to Zanobi Buondelmonti and Cosimo Rucellai, two of the greatest exponents of the Orti Oricellari in Florence, where aristocratic young people met in order to discuss politics, art and literature.
Outline
The Prince is written in the form of a short digest, based primarily on empiricalEmpirical
The word empirical denotes information gained by means of observation or experimentation. Empirical data are data produced by an experiment or observation....
observations about great men. Machiavelli wrote the Discourses in the form of a longer commentary on Livy
Livy
Titus Livius — known as Livy in English — was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people. Ab Urbe Condita Libri, "Chapters from the Foundation of the City," covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome well before the traditional foundation in 753 BC...
's work on the history of Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
, Ab Urbe condita
Ab Urbe condita (book)
Ab urbe condita libri — often shortened to Ab urbe condita — is a monumental history of ancient Rome written in Latin sometime between 27 and 25 BC by the historian Titus Livius. The work covers the time from the stories of Aeneas, the earliest legendary period from before the city's founding in c....
. However, both books include empirical observations—particularly from the political landscape of Renaissance Italy
Italian Renaissance
The Italian Renaissance began the opening phase of the Renaissance, a period of great cultural change and achievement in Europe that spanned the period from the end of the 13th century to about 1600, marking the transition between Medieval and Early Modern Europe...
—and historical generalizations. Machiavelli himself does not make a sharp distinction between the two methods of inquiry, as he thinks that all ages are fundamentally similar. Machiavelli seeks to use both methods to discover the laws of motion in human affairs, which he indicates are as unchanging as those of heaven, the sun and the elements.
The text is composed of three books. In Book I Machiavelli focuses on the internal structure of the republic. Book II is about matters of warfare. Book III is perhaps most similar to the teachings of The Prince, as it concerns individual leadership. The three books combined provide guidance to those trying to establish or reform a republic. However, his advice is (after Machiavelli's fashion) rather unorthodox, including a very long section on conspiracies, and seemingly providing advice to people seeking to overthrow a republic as well as those trying to establish one.
Although the formal title of the text translates as Discourses on the First Ten Books of Livy, Machiavelli makes liberal references and allusions to the other surviving books of Ab Urbe conditia, as well as to other works of classical literature. He particularly makes jibes—mainly indirect—at Aristotle
Aristotle
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology...
's Politics
Politics (Aristotle)
Aristotle's Politics is a work of political philosophy. The end of the Nicomachean Ethics declared that the inquiry into ethics necessarily follows into politics, and the two works are frequently considered to be parts of a larger treatise, or perhaps connected lectures, dealing with the...
. He also cites examples from especially Polybius
Polybius
Polybius , Greek ) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic Period noted for his work, The Histories, which covered the period of 220–146 BC in detail. The work describes in part the rise of the Roman Republic and its gradual domination over Greece...
and Plutarch
Plutarch
Plutarch then named, on his becoming a Roman citizen, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus , c. 46 – 120 AD, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia...
, as well as Xenophon
Xenophon
Xenophon , son of Gryllus, of the deme Erchia of Athens, also known as Xenophon of Athens, was a Greek historian, soldier, mercenary, philosopher and a contemporary and admirer of Socrates...
. There is also much implicit criticism of medieval prejudices against early Rome, deriving from such influential patristic works as Augustine's
Augustine of Hippo
Augustine of Hippo , also known as Augustine, St. Augustine, St. Austin, St. Augoustinos, Blessed Augustine, or St. Augustine the Blessed, was Bishop of Hippo Regius . He was a Latin-speaking philosopher and theologian who lived in the Roman Africa Province...
City of God.
Reception and reaction
Francesco GuicciardiniFrancesco Guicciardini
Francesco Guicciardini was an Italian historian and statesman. A friend and critic of Niccolò Machiavelli, he is considered one of the major political writers of the Italian Renaissance...
, Machiavelli's friend, read the book and wrote critical notes (Considerazioni) on many of the chapters. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of 18th-century Romanticism. His political philosophy influenced the French Revolution as well as the overall development of modern political, sociological and educational thought.His novel Émile: or, On Education is a treatise...
considered the Discourses (as well as the Florentine Histories
Florentine Histories
Florentine Histories is a historical account by Italian Renaissance political scientist and writer Niccolò Machiavelli, first published posthumously in 1532.-Background:...
) to be more representative of Machiavelli's true philosophy: