Diffusion of responsibility
Encyclopedia
Diffusion of responsibility is a sociopsychological
Social psychology
Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. By this definition, scientific refers to the empirical method of investigation. The terms thoughts, feelings, and behaviors include all...

 phenomenon. It refers to the tendency of any individual person to avoid taking action, or refraining from action, when others are present. Considered a form of attribution
Attribution
Attribution may refer to:Something, such as a quality or characteristic, that is related to a particular possessor; an attribute.*Attribution , concept in copyright law requiring an author to be credited...

, the individual assumes that either others are responsible for taking action or have already done so. The phenomenon tends to occur in groups of people above a certain critical size, often three, and when responsibility is not explicitly assigned. It also rarely occurs when the person is alone.

Conditions

Diffusion of responsibility occurs under both prosocial
Prosocial behavior
Prosocial behavior, or "voluntary behavior intended to benefit another", consists of actions which "benefit other people or society as a whole," "such as helping, sharing, donating, co- operating, and volunteering." These actions may be motivated by empathy and by concern about the welfare and...

 and antisocial conditions. In prosocial situations, the phenomenon governs individuals' reluctance to intervene or assist someone in need. The murder of Kitty Genovese
Kitty Genovese
Catherine Susan "Kitty" Genovese , was a New York City woman who was stabbed to death near her home in the Kew Gardens section of Queens, New York on March 13, 1964....

 is the classic case study for diffusion of responsibility in a prosocial situation. It has been demonstrated that the likelihood of a person offering help decreases as the number of observers present increases. This is known as the bystander effect
Bystander effect
The bystander effect or Genovese syndrome is a social psychological phenomenon that refers to cases where individuals do not offer any means of help in an emergency situation to the victim when other people are present...

.
In antisocial
Anti-social behaviour
Anti-social behaviour is behaviour that lacks consideration for others and that may cause damage to society, whether intentionally or through negligence, as opposed to pro-social behaviour, behaviour that helps or benefits society...

 situations, negative behaviors are more likely to be carried out when the person is in a group of individuals. The behavior is driven by the deindividuating
Deindividuation
Deindividuation is a concept in social psychology regarding the loosening of social norms in groups. Sociologists also study the phenomenon of deindividuation, but the level of analysis is somewhat different. For the social psychologist, the level of analysis is the individual in the context of a...

 effects of group membership and the diffusion of feelings of personal responsibility for the consequences. Diffusion of responsibility is a causal factor governing much crowd behavior, as well as risk-taking in groups.

Diffusion of responsibility can manifest itself:
  • in a group of people who, through action or inaction, allow events to occur which they would never allow if they were alone. This is referred to as groupthink
    Groupthink
    Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon that occurs within groups of people. It is the mode of thinking that happens when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. Group members try to minimize conflict and reach a consensus decision without...

     and groupshift
    Groupshift
    When people are in groups, they make decisions about risk differently from when they are alone. In the group, they are likely to make riskier decisions, as the shared risk makes the individual risk less.-Overview:...

    .
  • in a group of people working on a task who lose motivation, feel less responsibility for achievement of group goals, and hide their lack of effort in the group (social loafing
    Social loafing
    In the social psychology of groups, social loafing is the phenomenon of people exerting less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than when they work alone...

    ).
  • in hierarchical organization
    Hierarchical organization
    A hierarchical organization is an organizational structure where every entity in the organization, except one, is subordinate to a single other entity. This arrangement is a form of a hierarchy. In an organization, the hierarchy usually consists of a singular/group of power at the top with...

    s, when subordinates claim to simply be following orders
    Superior Orders
    Superior orders is a plea in a court of law that a soldier not be held guilty for actions which were ordered by a superior office...

     and supervisors claim that they merely issue directives and do not perform the actions under question. The difficulty of identifying the culpable party is often seen in trials regarding crimes against humanity.

Social pressure and helping behavior

Experiments have demonstrated that individuals' failure to assist others in emergencies is not due to apathy
Apathy
Apathy is a state of indifference, or the suppression of emotions such as concern, excitement, motivation and passion. An apathetic individual has an absence of interest in or concern about emotional, social, spiritual, philosophical or physical life.They may lack a sense of purpose or meaning in...

 or indifference, but rather to the presence of other people. This is based on both the bystander effect
Bystander effect
The bystander effect or Genovese syndrome is a social psychological phenomenon that refers to cases where individuals do not offer any means of help in an emergency situation to the victim when other people are present...

 and diffusion of responsibility. In 1968, an experiment by John Darley
John Darley
John M. Darley is a distinguished American social psychologist, who has made contributions to the study of helping behaviour...

 and Bibb Latané
Bibb Latané
Bibb Latané is a United States social psychologist. He is probably most famous for his work with John Darley on bystander intervention in emergencies, but he has also published many articles on social attraction in animals, social loafing in groups, and the spread of social influence in populations...

 demonstrated that an individual's choice to help or intervene in an emergency situation depends on the number of bystanders. Group size significantly influenced the likelihood of helping behavior in a staged emergency: 85% of participants responded with intervention when alone, 62% of participants took action when with one other person, and only 31% did when there were four other bystanders. In ambiguous situations, the individual's appraisal
Appraisal
Economic appraisal is a type of decision method applied to a project, programme or policy that takes into account a wide range of costs and benefits, denominated in monetary terms or for which a monetary equivalent can be estimated. Economic Appraisal is a key tool for achieving value for money and...

 of the situation and subsequent action or inaction largely depends on the reactions of other people. Other bystanders' interpretation of an emergency situation influences perception of the incident and helping behavior. In one study, diffusion of responsibility does not occur if another bystander is perceived as being unable to help.

Group psychology can also influence behavior positively; in the event that one bystander takes responsibility for the situation and takes specific action, other bystanders are more likely to follow course. This is a positive example of the usually-pejorative herd mentality
Herd mentality
Herd mentality describes how people are influenced by their peers to adopt certain behaviors, follow trends, and/or purchase items. Examples of the herd mentality include stock market trends, fashions in apparel, cars, taste in music, home décor, etc...

.
Thus, the presence of bystanders affects individual helping behavior by processes of social influence
Social influence
Social influence occurs when an individual's thoughts, feelings or actions are affected by other people. Social influence takes many forms and can be seen in conformity, socialization, peer pressure, obedience, leadership, persuasion, sales, and marketing...

 and diffusion of responsibility.

Decision-making process

Researchers have identified five decision points that a bystander encounters:
  • Noticing – realizing that there is a situation that may be an emergency
  • Defining an emergency – interpreting cues as signals of an emergency
  • Taking responsibility – personally assuming responsibility to act. People who have the necessary skills to help are more likely to do so. Single bystanders are more likely to help than groups.
  • Planning a course of action – deciding how to help and what skills might be needed
  • Taking action – initiating assistance. The cost of helping (e.g., danger to self) must not outweigh the rewards of helping, but a variety of complex and often altruistic
    Altruism
    Altruism is a concern for the welfare of others. It is a traditional virtue in many cultures, and a core aspect of various religious traditions, though the concept of 'others' toward whom concern should be directed can vary among cultures and religions. Altruism is the opposite of...

     factors influence this judgment.


For example:
  • Observing smoke in a room (noticing)
  • Recognizing that smoke is associated with fire, and therefore that people may be in danger (defining an emergency)
  • Realizing that help is needed and that one has the capacity to assist (taking responsibility)
  • Weighing responses (e.g., calling the fire department or attempting to put out the fire) and deciding on the most appropriate action for the situation (planning a course of action)
  • Implementing the chosen action (taking action)

Real-world examples

  • In 1964, Kitty Genovese
    Kitty Genovese
    Catherine Susan "Kitty" Genovese , was a New York City woman who was stabbed to death near her home in the Kew Gardens section of Queens, New York on March 13, 1964....

    , a New York woman, was raped and stabbed to death near her apartment in the presence of several witnesses (reports vary wildly as to the actual number of witnesses). Reports of witnesses' inaction prompted research into possible explanations, which helped develop the concepts of diffusion of responsibility and the bystander effect
    Bystander effect
    The bystander effect or Genovese syndrome is a social psychological phenomenon that refers to cases where individuals do not offer any means of help in an emergency situation to the victim when other people are present...

    .
  • In a firing squad, one or more of the shooters may be randomly issued a weapon containing a blank cartridge rather than a bullet. This allows each of the members of the firing squad to believe that they did not fire the fatal shot.
  • In some electric chair
    Electric chair
    Execution by electrocution, usually performed using an electric chair, is an execution method originating in the United States in which the condemned person is strapped to a specially built wooden chair and electrocuted through electrodes placed on the body...

    s there are many switches, only one of which is connected. The executioners may then choose to believe that they pulled a non-functional switch.


The diffusion of responsibility for alleged war crimes during World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...

 was famously used as a legal defense by many of the Nazis being tried at Nuremberg
Nuremberg Trials
The Nuremberg Trials were a series of military tribunals, held by the victorious Allied forces of World War II, most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political, military, and economic leadership of the defeated Nazi Germany....

. A similar defense was mounted by the defendants accused in the My Lai massacre
My Lai Massacre
The My Lai Massacre was the Vietnam War mass murder of 347–504 unarmed civilians in South Vietnam on March 16, 1968, by United States Army soldiers of "Charlie" Company of 1st Battalion, 20th Infantry Regiment, 11th Brigade of the Americal Division. Most of the victims were women, children , and...

.

See also

  • Milgram experiment
    Milgram experiment
    The Milgram experiment on obedience to authority figures was a series of notable social psychology experiments conducted by Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram, which measured the willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that...

  • Design by committee
    Design by committee
    Design by committee is a term referring to a style of design and its resultant output when a group of entities comes together to produce something , particularly in the presence of poor leadership...

  • Somebody Else's Problem
    Somebody Else's Problem
    Somebody Else's Problem is an effect that causes people to ignore matters that are generally important to a group but may not seem specifically important to the individual. Author Douglas Adams' description of the effect, which he playfully ascribed to a physical "SEP field," has helped to make it...

  • Tragedy of the commons
    Tragedy of the commons
    The tragedy of the commons is a dilemma arising from the situation in which multiple individuals, acting independently and rationally consulting their own self-interest, will ultimately deplete a shared limited resource, even when it is clear that it is not in anyone's long-term interest for this...

  • Nuremberg Defense
  • Political gridlock under the presidential system
  • Banality of evil
    Banality of Evil
    Banality of evil is a phrase coined by Hannah Arendt and incorporated in the title of her 1963 work Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil. It describes the thesis that the great evils in history generally, and the Holocaust in particular, were not executed by fanatics or...


External links

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