Devanagari

{{Redirect|Nagari}} {{Overlink|date=June 2011}} {{IndicTextRight}} {{brahmic}} '''Devanagari''' ({{IPA-en|ˌdeɪvəˈnɑːɡəriː|pron}}; {{IPA-hi|d̪eːʋˈnaːɡri|lang}}; {{lang|sa|देवनागरी}} ''Devanāgarī'' — compound of "[[Deva (Hinduism)|deva]]" ({{lang|sa|देव}}) and [[Nāgarī script|"nāgarī"]] ({{lang|sa|नागरी}}) ), also called '''Nagari''' (''Nāgarī'', {{lang|sa|नागरी}}, the name of its parent writing system), is an [[abugida]] alphabet of [[India]] and [[Nepal]]. It is written from left to right, does not have distinct [[letter case]]s, and is recognizable (along with most other North Indic scripts, with few exceptions like [[Gujarati script|Gujarati]] and [[Oriya script|Oriya]]) by a horizontal line that runs along the top of full letters. Devanāgarī is the main script used to write [[Standard Hindi]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], and [[Nepali language|Nepali]]. Since the 19th century, it has been the most commonly used script for [[Sanskrit]]. Devanāgarī is also employed for [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]], [[Gujari]], [[Pahari languages|Pahari]], ([[Garhwali]] and [[Kumauni language|Kumaoni]]), [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Magahi language|Magahi]], [[Maithili language|Maithili]], [[Marwari language|Marwari]], [[Bhili language|Bhili]], [[Newar language|Newari]], [[Santhali]], [[Tharu language|Tharu]], and sometimes [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Dogri]], [[Sherpa language|Sherpa]] and by [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]]-speaking Hindus. It was formerly used to write [[Gujarati Language|Gujarati]]. ==Origins== Devanāgarī is part of the [[Brahmic family]] of scripts of India, Nepal, Tibet, and South-East Asia. It is a descendant of the [[Gupta script]], along with [[Siddham script|Siddham]] and [[Sharada script|Sharada]]. Eastern variants of Gupta called ''Nāgarī'' are first attested from the 8th century; from c. 1200 these gradually replaced Siddham, which survived as a vehicle for Tantric Buddhism in East Asia, and Sharada, which remained in parallel use in [[Kashmir]]. An early version of Devanagari is visible in the [[Kutila inscription of Bareilly]] dated to [[Vikram Samvat]] 1049 (i.e. 992 CE), which demonstrates the emergence of the horizontal bar to group letters belonging to a word. Sanskrit ''{{IAST|nāgarī}}'' is the feminine of ''{{IAST|nāgara}}'' "urban(e)", a [[vṛddhi]] adjectival form of ''nagaram'', called establishment. It is feminine from its original phrasing with ''lipi'' ("script") as ''{{IAST|nāgarī lipi}}'' "urban(e) script", that is, the script of the cultured establishment. The use of the name {{IAST|Devanāgarī}} is relatively recent, and the older term ''{{IAST|Nāgarī}}'' is still common. The rapid spread of the term ''{{IAST|Devanāgarī}}'' may be related to the almost exclusive use of this script to publish sacred Sanskrit texts. This has led to such a close connection between Devanāgarī and Sanskrit that Devanāgarī is now widely thought to be ''the'' Sanskrit script; however, before the colonial period there was no standard script for Sanskrit, which was written in whichever script was familiar to the local populace. ==Principle== As a Brahmic abugida, the fundamental principle of Devanāgarī is that each letter represents a consonant, which carries an inherent [[schwa]] vowel ''a'' [ə]. For example, the letter क is read ''ka,'' (not 'kaah'; similar to German suffix ''-e'', as in ''Deutsche'') the two letters कन are ''kana,'' the three कनय are ''kanaya,'' etc. Other vowels, or the absence of vowels, require modification of these consonants or their own letters: * A final consonant is marked with the diacritic {{IAST|्}}, called the ''[[virāma]]'' in Sanskrit, ''halant'' in Hindi, and occasionally a "killer stroke" in English. This cancels the inherent vowel, so that from क्नय ''knaya'' is derived क्नय् ''knay.'' The ''halant'' is often used for consonant clusters when typesetting conjunct ligatures is not feasible. * [[Consonant cluster]]s are written with [[Typographical ligature|ligatures]] ''({{IAST|saṃyuktākṣara}}'' "conjuncts"). For example, the three consonants क्, न्, and य्, ''(k , n, y)'', when written consecutively without virāma form कनय, as shown above. Alternatively, they may be joined as clusters to form क्नय ''knaya,'' कन्य ''kanya,'' or क्न्य ''knya.'' This system was originally created for use with the [[Middle Indic languages]], which have a very limited number of clusters (the only clusters allowed are [[gemination|geminate consonants]] and clusters involving [[homorganic]] [[nasal consonant]]s). When applied to Sanskrit, however, it added a great deal of complexity to the script, due to the large variety of clusters in this language (up to five consonants, e.g. ''rtsny''). Much of this complexity is required at least on occasion in the modern [[Indo-Aryan languages]], due to the large amount of clusters allowed and especially due to borrowings from Sanskrit. * Vowels other than the inherent ''a'' are written with [[diacritics]] (termed ''matras''). For example, using क ''ka'', the following forms can be derived: के ''ke,'' कु ''ku,'' की ''kī,'' का ''kā,'' etc. * For vowels as an independent syllable (in writing, unattached to a consonant), either at the beginning of a word or (in Hindi) after another vowel, there are full-letter forms. For example, while the vowel ''ū'' is written with the diacritic {{IAST|ू}} in कू ''kū,'' it has its own letter ऊ in ऊक ''ūka'' and (in Hindi but not Sanskrit) कऊ ''kaū.'' Such a letter or ligature, with its diacritics, is called an ''{{IAST|akṣara}}'' "syllable". For example, कनय ''kanaya'' is written with what are counted as three ''akshara,'' whereas क्न्य ''knya'' and कु ''ku'' are each written with one. As far as [[handwriting]] is concerned, letters are usually written without the distinctive horizontal bar, which is only added once the word is completed. ==Letters== {{IPA notice}} The [[Collating sequence|letter order]] of Devanāgarī, like nearly all Brahmi scripts, is based on [[phonetics|phonetic]] principles which consider both the [[manner of articulation|manner]] and [[place of articulation]] of the consonants and vowels they represent. This arrangement is usually referred to as the ''{{IAST|varṇamālā}}'' "[[garland]] of letters". The format of Devanāgarī for Sanskrit serves as the prototype for its application, with minor variations or additions, to other languages. ===Vowels=== The vowels and their arrangement are: {|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; height:400px; width:60%" |- ! !Independent form !Romanized !As diacritic with प !rowspan="8" style="width:20px"| !Independent form !Romanized !As diacritic with प |- !''{{IAST|kaṇṭhya}}''
([[Guttural]]) | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|अ |{{IAST|a}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|प | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|आ |{{IAST|ā}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|पा |- !''{{IAST|tālavya}}''
([[Palatal]]) | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|इ |{{IAST|i}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|पि | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|ई |{{IAST|ī}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|पी |- !''{{IAST|oṣṭhya}}''
([[Labial consonant|Labial]]) | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|उ |{{IAST|u}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|पु | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|ऊ |{{IAST|ū}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|पू |- !''{{IAST|mūrḍhanya}}''
([[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]) | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|ऋ |{{IAST|ṛ}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|पृ | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|ॠ |{{IAST|ṝ}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|पॄ |- !''{{IAST|dantya}}''
([[Dental consonant|Dental]]) | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|ऌ |{{IAST|ḷ}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|पॢ | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|ॡ |{{IAST|ḹ}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|पॣ |- !''{{IAST|kaṇṭhatālavya}}''
(Palato-Guttural) | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|ए |{{IAST|e}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|पे | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|ऐ |{{IAST|ai}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|पै |- !''{{IAST|kaṇṭhoṣṭhya}}''
(Labio-Guttural) | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|ओ |{{IAST|o}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|पो | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|औ |{{IAST|au}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|पौ |} * Arranged with the vowels are two consonantal [[diacritic]]s, the final [[nasal consonant|nasal]] ''[[anusvāra]]'' ं ''{{IAST|ṃ}}'' and the final [[fricative]] ''[[visarga]]'' ः ''{{IAST|ḥ}}'' (called अं ''{{IAST|aṃ}}'' and अः ''{{IAST|aḥ}}).'' notes of the ''anusvāra'' in Sankrit that "there is some controversy as to whether it represents a homorganic [[nasal consonant]] [...], a [[nasalized vowel]], a nasalized [[semivowel]], or all these according to context". The ''visarga'' represents post-vocalic [[voiceless glottal fricative]] {{IPA|[h]}}, in Sanskrit an [[allophone]] of ''{{IAST|s}},'' or less commonly ''{{IAST|r}},'' usually in word-final position. Some traditions of recitation append an echo of the [[vowel]] after the breath: इः {{IPA|[ihi]}}. {{Harvcoltxt|Masica|1991|p=146}} considers the ''visarga'' along with letters ङ ''{{IAST|ṅa}}'' and ञ ''{{IAST|ña}}'' for the "largely predictable" [[velar nasal|velar]] and [[palatal nasal]]s to be examples of "phonetic overkill in the system". * Another diacritic is the ''[[candrabindu]]''/''[[anunāsika]]'' ँ. describes it as a "more emphatic form" of the ''{{IAST|anusvāra}},'' "sometimes [...] used to mark a true [vowel] nasalization". In a New Indo-Aryan language such as Hindi the distinction is formal: the ''{{IAST|candrabindu}}'' indicates [[nasalized vowel|vowel nasalization]] while the ''{{IAST|anusvār}}'' indicates a homorganic [[nasal consonant|nasal]] preceding another consonant: e.g. हँसी {{IPA|[ɦə̃si]}} "[[laughter]]", गंगा {{IPA|[ɡəŋɡɑ]}} "the [[Ganges]]". When an ''akshara'' has a vowel diacritic above the top line, that leaves no room for the ''candra'' ("moon") stroke ''candrabindu,'' which is dispensed with in favour of the lone dot: हूँ {{IPA|[ɦũ]}} "am", but हैं {{IPA|[ɦɛ̃]}} "are". Some writers and typesetters dispense with the "moon" stroke altogether, using only the dot in all situations. * The ''[[avagraha]]'' ऽ (usually [[transliteration|transliterated]] with an [[apostrophe]]) is a Sanskrit [[punctuation mark]] for the [[elision]] of a [[vowel]] in [[sandhi]]: एकोऽयम् ''{{IAST|ekoyam}}'' (< ''{{IAST|ekas}}'' + ''{{IAST|ayam}}'') "this one". An original [[long vowel]] lost to coalescence is sometimes marked with a double ''avagraha:'' सदाऽऽत्मा ''{{IAST|sadātmā}}'' (< ''{{IAST|sadā}}'' + ''{{IAST|ātmā}}'') "always, the self". In Hindi, states that its "main function is to show that a vowel is sustained in a cry or a shout": आईऽऽऽ! ''{{IAST|āīīī!}}''. In Magahi, which has "quite a number of [[verb]]al forms [that] end in that inherent vowel" , the ''avagraha'' is used to mark the ''non-''elision of word-final inherent ''a,'' which otherwise is a modern [[Orthography|orthographic]] convention: बइठऽ ''{{IAST|baiṭha}}'' "sit" versus *बइठ ''{{IAST|baiṭh}}'' * The syllabic consonants ''{{IAST|ṝ}}, {{IAST|ḷ}},'' and ''{{IAST|ḹ}}'' are specific to Sanskrit and not included in the ''{{IAST|varṇamālā}}'' of other languages. The sound represented by ''{{IAST|ṛ}}'' has also been lost in the modern languages, and its pronunciation now ranges from {{IPA|[ɾɪ]}} (Hindi) to {{IPA|[ɾu]}} (Marathi). * ''{{IAST|ḹ}}'' is not an actual [[phoneme]] of Sanskrit, but rather a graphic convention included among the vowels in order to maintain the symmetry of short–long pairs of letters. * There are non-regular formations of रु ''ru'' and रू ''rū''. ===Consonants=== The consonants and their arrangement are: {|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; height:400px; width:95%" |- ! ! colspan="8"| ''{{IAST|sparśa}}''
([[Stop consonant|Stop]]) ! colspan="2"| ''{{IAST|anunāsika}}''
([[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]) ! colspan="2"| ''{{IAST|antastha}}''
([[Approximant]]) ! colspan="4"| ''{{IAST|ūṣma/saṃghashrī}}''
([[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]) |- ! [[Voice (phonetics)|Voicing]] → | colspan="4"| ''{{IAST|aghoṣa}}'' | colspan="8" style="background:beige;"| ''{{IAST|ghoṣa}}'' | colspan="2"| ''{{IAST|aghoṣa}}'' | colspan="2" style="background:beige;"| ''{{IAST|ghoṣa}}'' |- ! [[Aspiration (phonetics)|Aspiration]] → | colspan="2"| ''{{IAST|alpaprāṇa}}'' | colspan="2" style="background:beige;"| ''{{IAST|mahāprāṇa}}'' | colspan="2"| ''{{IAST|alpaprāṇa}}'' | colspan="2" style="background:beige;"| ''{{IAST|mahāprāṇa}}'' | colspan="4"| ''{{IAST|alpaprāṇa}}'' | colspan="4" style="background:beige;"| ''{{IAST|mahāprāṇa}}'' |- !''{{IAST|kaṇṭhya}}''
([[Guttural]]) | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|क||{{IAST|ka}}
{{IPA|/k/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|ख||{{IAST|kha}}
{{IPA|/kʰ/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|ग||{{IAST|ga}}
{{IPA|/ɡ/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|घ||{{IAST|gha}}
{{IPA|/ɡʱ/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|ङ||{{IAST|ṅa}}
{{IPA|/ŋ/}} | colspan="4"| | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|ह||{{IAST|ha}}
{{IPA|/ɦ/}} |- !''tālavya''
([[Palatal]]) | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|च||{{IAST|ca}}
{{IPA|/c, t͡ʃ/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|छ||{{IAST|cha}}
{{IPA|/cʰ, t͡ʃʰ/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|ज||{{IAST|ja}}
{{IPA|/ɟ, d͡ʒ/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|झ||{{IAST|jha}}
{{IPA|/ɟʱ, d͡ʒʱ/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|ञ||{{IAST|ña}}
{{IPA|/ɲ/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|य||{{IAST|ya}}
{{IPA|/j/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|श||{{IAST|śa}}
{{IPA|/ɕ, ʃ/}} | colspan="2" rowspan="4"| |- !''mūrdhanya''
([[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]) | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|ट||{{IAST|ṭa}}
{{IPA|/ʈ/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|ठ||{{IAST|ṭha}}
{{IPA|/ʈʰ/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|ड||{{IAST|ḍa}}
{{IPA|/ɖ/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|ढ||{{IAST|ḍha}}
{{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|ण||{{IAST|ṇa}}
{{IPA|/ɳ/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|र||{{IAST|ra}}
{{IPA|/r/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|ष||{{IAST|ṣa}}
{{IPA|/ʂ/}} |- !''dantya''
([[Dental consonant|Dental]]) | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|त||{{IAST|ta}}
{{IPA|/t̪/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|थ||{{IAST|tha}}
{{IPA|/t̪ʰ/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|द||{{IAST|da}}
{{IPA|/d̪/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|ध||{{IAST|dha}}
{{IPA|/d̪ʱ/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|न||{{IAST|na}}
{{IPA|/n/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|ल||{{IAST|la}}
{{IPA|/l/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|स||{{IAST|sa}}
{{IPA|/s/}} |- !''{{IAST|oṣṭhya}}''
([[Labial consonant|Labial]]) | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|प||{{IAST|pa}}
{{IPA|/p/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|फ||{{IAST|pha}}
{{IPA|/pʰ/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|ब||{{IAST|ba}}
{{IPA|/b/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|भ||{{IAST|bha}}
{{IPA|/bʱ/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|म||{{IAST|ma}}
{{IPA|/m/}} | style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|व||{{IAST|va}}
{{IPA|/ʋ/}} | colspan="2"| |} * Rounding this out where applicable is ळ ''{{IAST|ḷa}}'' {{IPA|/ɭ/}}, which represented the intervocalic [[Retroflex lateral flap|lateral flap]]{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}} [[allophone]] of the [[voiced retroflex stop]] in [[Vedic Sanskrit]], and which is a [[phoneme]] in languages such as [[Marathi language|Marathi]] and [[Rajasthani language|Rajasthani]]. * Beyond the Sanskritic set new shapes have rarely been formulated. {{Harvcoltxt|Masica|1991|p=146}} offers the following, "In any case, according to some, all possible sounds had already been described and provided for in this system, as Sanskrit was the original and perfect language. Hence it was difficult to provide for or even to conceive ''other'' sounds, unknown to the [[phonetician]]s of Sanskrit." Where foreign borrowings and internal developments did inevitably accrue and arise in New Indo-Aryan languages, they have been either ignored in writing, or dealt through means such as [[diacritic]]s and [[Typographic ligature|ligatures]] (ignored in recitation). ** The most prolific diacritic has been the [[subscript]] dot ([[Nukta|''nuqtā'']]) ़. [[Hindi]] uses it for the [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and/or [[English language|English]] sounds क़ ''[[Voiceless uvular plosive|qa]]'' {{IPA|/q/}}, ख़ ''[[Voiceless velar fricative|ḫa]]'' {{IPA|/x/}}, ग़ ''{{IAST|[[Voiced velar fricative|ġa]]}}'' {{IPA|/ɣ/}}, ज़ ''[[Voiced alveolar fricative|za]]'' {{IPA|/z/}}, झ़ ''[[Voiced postalveolar fricative|zha]]'' {{IPA|/ʒ/}}, and फ़ ''[[Voiceless labiodental fricative|fa]]'' {{IPA|/f/}}, and for the [[allophonic]] developments ड़ ''{{IAST|[[Retroflex flap|ṛa]]}}'' {{IPA|/ɽ/}} and ढ़ ''{{IAST|ṛha}}'' {{IPA|/ɽʱ/}}. (Although ऴ ''{{IAST|ḷha}}'' {{IPA|/ɭʱ/}} could also exist but there is no use of it in Hindi.) ** [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]]'s [[implosive]]s are accommodated with [[underlining]] ॒ : [[Voiced velar implosive|ॻ]] {{IPA|[ɠə]}}, [[Voiced palatal implosive|ॼ]] {{IPA|[ʄə]}}, [[Voiced alveolar implosive|ॾ]] {{IPA|[ɗə]}}, [[Voiced bilabial implosive|ॿ]] {{IPA|[ɓə]}}. ** [[Aspiration (phonetics)|Aspirated]] [[sonorant]]s may be represented as conjuncts/[[Typographic ligature|ligatures]] with ह ''ha'': म्ह ''mha'', न्ह ''nha'', ण्ह ''{{IAST|ṇha}}'', व्ह ''vha'', ल्ह ''lha'', ळ्ह ''{{IAST|ḷha}}'', र्ह ''rha''. ** {{Harvcoltxt|Masica|1991|p=147}} notes [[Marwari language|Marwari]] as using a special symbol for ''{{IAST|ḍa}}'' {{IPA|[ɗə]}} (while ड = ऊ {{IPA|[ɽə]}}). **When writing [[Urdu]], अ with vowel marking is used for the Perso-Arabic consonant ع [[ayin]], which is silent in Urdu. ====Schwa syncope in Hindi consonants==== {{Main|Schwa deletion in Indo-Aryan languages}} Although the Devanagari script is used as a standard to write modern Hindi, the schwa ('ə') implicit in each consonant of the script is "obligatorily deleted" at the end of words and in certain other contexts, unlike in Sanskrit. This phenomenon has been termed the "''[[Schwa deletion in Indo-Aryan languages|schwa syncope rule]]''" or the "''schwa deletion rule''" of Hindi. One formalization of this rule has been summarized as ''ə -> ø | VC_CV''. In other words, when a schwa-succeeded consonant is followed by a vowel-succeeded consonant, the schwa inherent in the first consonant is deleted. However, this formalization is inexact and incomplete (i.e. sometimes deletes a schwa when it shouldn't or, at other times, fails to delete it when it should), and can yield errors. Schwa deletion is computationally important because it is essential to building [[Speech synthesis|text-to-speech]] software for Hindi. As a result of schwa syncope, the Hindi pronunciation of many words differs from that expected from a literal Sanskrit-style rendering of Devanagari. For instance, राम is ''Rām'' (not ''Rāma''), रचना is ''Rachnā'' (not ''Rachanā''), वेद is ''Véd'' (not ''Véda'') and नमकीन is ''Namkeen'' (not ''Namakeen''). The name of the script itself is pronounced ''Devnāgrī'' (not ''Devanāgarī''). Correct schwa deletion is also critical because, in some cases, the same Devanagari letter-sequence is pronounced two different ways in Hindi depending on context, and failure to delete the appropriate schwas can change the sense of the word. For instance, the letter sequence 'रक' is pronounced differently in हरकत (''har.kat'', meaning ''movement'' or ''activity'') and सरकना (''sarak.na'', meaning ''to slide''). Similarly, the sequence धड़कने in दिल धड़कने लगा (''the heart started beating'') and in दिल की धड़कनें (''beats of the heart'') is identical prior to the nasalization in the second usage. Yet, it is pronounced ''dhadak.ne'' in the first and ''dhad.kane'' in the second. While native speakers correctly pronounce the sequences differently in different contexts, non-native speakers and voice-synthesis software can make them ''"sound very unnatural"'', making it ''"extremely difficult for the listener"'' to grasp the intended meaning. ====Allophony of 'v' and 'w' in Hindi==== {{IPA|[v]}} (the [[voiced labiodental fricative]]) and {{IPA|[w]}} (the [[voiced labio-velar approximant]]) are both [[allophone]]s of the single [[grapheme|letter]] 'व' in Devanagari and Hindi. More specifically, they are ''conditional allophones'', i.e. rules apply on whether 'व' is pronounced as {{IPA|[v]}} or {{IPA|[w]}} depending on context. Native Hindi speakers pronounce 'व' as {{IPA|[v]}} in ''vrat'' ('व्रत', ''fast'') and {{IPA|[w]}} in ''pakwan'' ('पकवान', ''food dish''), perceiving them as a single phoneme and without being aware of the allophone distinctions they are systematically making. However, this specific allophony can become obvious when speakers switch languages. Non-native speakers of Hindi might pronounce 'व' in 'व्रत' as {{IPA|[w]}}, i.e. as ''wrat'' instead of the more correct ''vrat''. This results in a minor intelligibility problem because ''wrat'' can easily be confused for ''aurat'',{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}} which means ''woman'', instead of the intended ''fast'', in Hindi. ===Conjuncts=== [[Image:JanaSanskritSans ddhrya.svg|thumb|The ''{{IAST|ddhrya}}''-ligature (द्ध्र्य) of JanaSanskritSans.]] :''You will only be able to see the ligatures if your system has a Unicode font installed that includes the required ligature glyphs (e.g. one of the TDIL fonts, see "external links" below).'' As mentioned, successive consonants lacking a vowel in between them may physically join together as a ''conjunct'' or [[Ligature (typography)|ligature]]. The government of these clusters ranges from widely to narrowly applicable rules, with special exceptions within. While standardized for the most part, there are certain variations in clustering, of which the [[Unicode]] used on this page is just one scheme. The following are a number of rules: * 24 out of the 36 consonants contain a vertical right stroke (ख, घ, ण etc.). As first or middle fragments/members of a cluster, they lose that stroke. e.g. त + व = त्व, ण + ढ = ण्ढ, स + थ = स्थ. श ''ś(a)'' appears as a different, simple ribbon-shaped fragment preceding व ''va'', न ''na'', च ''ca'', ल ''la'', and र ''ra'', causing these second members to be shifted down and reduced in size. Thus श्व ''śva'', श्न ''śna'', श्च ''śca'' श्ल ''śla'', and श्र ''śra''. * र ''r(a)'' as a first member takes the form of a curved upward dash above the final character or its ''ā-''diacritic. e.g. र्व ''rva'', र्वा ''rvā'', र्स्प ''rspa'', र्स्पा ''rspā''. As a final member with ट ठ ड ढ ङ छ it is two lines below the character, pointed downwards and apart. Thus ट्र ठ्र ड्र ढ्र ङ्र छ्र. Elsewhere as a final member it is a diagonal stroke extending leftwards and down. e.g. क्र ग्र भ्र. त ''ta'' is shifted up to make त्र ''tra''. * As first members, remaining characters lacking vertical strokes such as द ''d(a)'' and ह ''h(a)'' may have their second member, reduced in size and lacking its horizontal stroke, placed underneath. क ''k(a)'', छ ''ch(a)'', and फ ''ph(a)'' shorten their right hooks and join them directly to the following member. * The conjuncts for ''{{IAST|kṣ}}'' and ''{{IAST|jñ}}'' are not clearly derived from the letters making up their components. The conjunct for ''{{IAST|kṣ}}'' is क्ष (क् + ष)and for ''{{IAST|jñ}}'' it is ज्ञ (ज् + ञ). The table below shows '''all''' the 1296 viable symbols for the biconsonantal [[consonant cluster|clusters]] formed by collating the 36 fundamental symbols of '''Sanskrit''' as listed in {{Harvcoltxt|Masica|1991|pp=161–162}}. Scroll your cursor over the conjuncts to reveal their romanizations (in [[International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration|IAST]]) and IPA transcriptions. ====Biconsonantal conjuncts==== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:15px" |- ! !!क !!ख !!ग !!घ !!ङ !!च !!छ !!ज !!झ !!ञ !!ट !!ठ !!ड !!ढ !!ण !!त !!थ !!द !!ध !!न !!प !!फ !!ब !!भ !!म !!य !!र !!ल !!व !!श !!ष !!स !!ह !!ळ !!क्ष !!ज्ञ |- !क ||{{H:title|kka (IPA:kkə)|क्क|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kkha (IPA:kkʰə)|क्ख|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kga (IPA:kɡə)|क्ग|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kgha (IPA:kɡʱə)|क्घ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kṅa (IPA:kŋə)|क्ङ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kca (IPA:kcɕə)|क्च|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kcha (IPA:kcɕʰə)|क्छ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kja (IPA:kɟʝə)|क्ज|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kjha (IPA:kɟʝʱə)|क्झ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kña (IPA:kɲə)|क्ञ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kṭa (IPA:kʈə)|क्ट|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kṭha (IPA:kʈʰə)|क्ठ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kḍa (IPA:kɖə)|क्ड|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kḍha (IPA:kɖʱə)|क्ढ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kṇa (IPA:kɳə)|क्ण|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kta (IPA:kt̪ə)|क्त|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ktha (IPA:kt̪ʰə)|क्थ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kda (IPA:kd̪ə)|क्द|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kdha (IPA:kd̪ʱə)|क्ध|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kna (IPA:kn̪ə)|क्न|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kpa (IPA:kpə)|क्प|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kpha (IPA:kpʰə)|क्फ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kba (IPA:kbə)|क्ब|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kbha (IPA:kbʱə)|क्भ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kma (IPA:kmə)|क्म|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kya (IPA:kjə)|क्य|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kra (IPA:krə)|क्र|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kla (IPA:klə)|क्ल|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kva (IPA:kvə)|क्व|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kśa (IPA:kʃə)|क्श|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kśa (IPA:kʃə)|क्ष|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ksa (IPA:ksə)|क्स|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kha (IPA:khə)|क्ह|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kḷa (IPA:kɭə)|क्ळ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kkṣa (IPA:kkʃə)|क्क्ष|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|kgña (IPA:kɟʝɲə)|क्ज्ञ|dotted=no}} |- !ख ||{{H:title|khka (IPA:kʰkə)|ख्क|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khkha (IPA:kʰkʰə)|ख्ख|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khga (IPA:kʰɡə)|ख्ग|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khgha (IPA:kʰɡʱə)|ख्घ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khṅa (IPA:kʰŋə)|ख्ङ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khca (IPA:kʰcɕə)|ख्च|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khcha (IPA:kʰcɕʰə)|ख्छ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khja (IPA:kʰɟʝə)|ख्ज|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khjha (IPA:kʰɟʝʱə)|ख्झ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khña (IPA:kʰɲə)|ख्ञ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khṭa (IPA:kʰʈə)|ख्ट|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khṭha (IPA:kʰʈʰə)|ख्ठ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khḍa (IPA:kʰɖə)|ख्ड|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khḍha (IPA:kʰɖʱə)|ख्ढ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khṇa (IPA:kʰɳə)|ख्ण|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khta (IPA:kʰt̪ə)|ख्त|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khtha (IPA:kʰt̪ʰə)|ख्थ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khda (IPA:kʰd̪ə)|ख्द|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khdha (IPA:kʰd̪ʱə)|ख्ध|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khna (IPA:kʰn̪ə)|ख्न|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khpa (IPA:kʰpə)|ख्प|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khpha (IPA:kʰpʰə)|ख्फ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khba (IPA:kʰbə)|ख्ब|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khbha (IPA:kʰbʱə)|ख्भ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khma (IPA:kʰmə)|ख्म|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khya (IPA:kʰjə)|ख्य|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khra (IPA:kʰrə)|ख्र|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khla (IPA:kʰlə)|ख्ल|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khva (IPA:kʰvə)|ख्व|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khśa (IPA:kʰʃə)|ख्श|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khśa (IPA:kʰʃə)|ख्ष|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khsa (IPA:kʰsə)|ख्स|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khha (IPA:kʰhə)|ख्ह|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khḷa (IPA:kʰɭə)|ख्ळ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khkṣa (IPA:kʰkʃə)|ख्क्ष|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|khgña (IPA:kʰɟʝɲə)|ख्ज्ञ|dotted=no}} |- !ग ||{{H:title|gka (IPA:ɡkə)|ग्क|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gkha (IPA:ɡkʰə)|ग्ख|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gga (IPA:ɡɡə)|ग्ग|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ggha (IPA:ɡɡʱə)|ग्घ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gṅa (IPA:ɡŋə)|ग्ङ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gca (IPA:ɡcɕə)|ग्च|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gcha (IPA:ɡcɕʰə)|ग्छ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gja (IPA:ɡɟʝə)|ग्ज|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gjha (IPA:ɡɟʝʱə)|ग्झ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gña (IPA:ɡɲə)|ग्ञ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gṭa (IPA:ɡʈə)|ग्ट|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gṭha (IPA:ɡʈʰə)|ग्ठ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gḍa (IPA:ɡɖə)|ग्ड|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gḍha (IPA:ɡɖʱə)|ग्ढ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gṇa (IPA:ɡɳə)|ग्ण|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gta (IPA:ɡt̪ə)|ग्त|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gtha (IPA:ɡt̪ʰə)|ग्थ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gda (IPA:ɡd̪ə)|ग्द|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gdha (IPA:ɡd̪ʱə)|ग्ध|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gna (IPA:ɡn̪ə)|ग्न|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gpa (IPA:ɡpə)|ग्प|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gpha (IPA:ɡpʰə)|ग्फ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gba (IPA:ɡbə)|ग्ब|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gbha (IPA:ɡbʱə)|ग्भ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gma (IPA:ɡmə)|ग्म|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gya (IPA:ɡjə)|ग्य|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gra (IPA:ɡrə)|ग्र|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gla (IPA:ɡlə)|ग्ल|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gva (IPA:ɡvə)|ग्व|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gśa (IPA:ɡʃə)|ग्श|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gśa (IPA:ɡʃə)|ग्ष|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gsa (IPA:ɡsə)|ग्स|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gha (IPA:ɡhə)|ग्ह|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gḷa (IPA:ɡɭə)|ग्ळ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|gkṣa (IPA:ɡkʃə)|ग्क्ष|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ggña (IPA:ɡɟʝɲə)|ग्ज्ञ|dotted=no}} |- !घ ||{{H:title|ghka (IPA:ɡʱkə)|घ्क|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghkha (IPA:ɡʱkʰə)|घ्ख|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghga (IPA:ɡʱɡə)|घ्ग|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghgha (IPA:ɡʱɡʱə)|घ्घ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghṅa (IPA:ɡʱŋə)|घ्ङ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghca (IPA:ɡʱcɕə)|घ्च|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghcha (IPA:ɡʱcɕʰə)|घ्छ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghja (IPA:ɡʱɟʝə)|घ्ज|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghjha (IPA:ɡʱɟʝʱə)|घ्झ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghña (IPA:ɡʱɲə)|घ्ञ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghṭa (IPA:ɡʱʈə)|घ्ट|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghṭha (IPA:ɡʱʈʰə)|घ्ठ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghḍa (IPA:ɡʱɖə)|घ्ड|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghḍha (IPA:ɡʱɖʱə)|घ्ढ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghṇa (IPA:ɡʱɳə)|घ्ण|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghta (IPA:ɡʱt̪ə)|घ्त|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghtha (IPA:ɡʱt̪ʰə)|घ्थ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghda (IPA:ɡʱd̪ə)|घ्द|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghdha (IPA:ɡʱd̪ʱə)|घ्ध|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghna (IPA:ɡʱn̪ə)|घ्न|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghpa (IPA:ɡʱpə)|घ्प|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghpha (IPA:ɡʱpʰə)|घ्फ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghba (IPA:ɡʱbə)|घ्ब|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghbha (IPA:ɡʱbʱə)|घ्भ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghma (IPA:ɡʱmə)|घ्म|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghya (IPA:ɡʱjə)|घ्य|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghra (IPA:ɡʱrə)|घ्र|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghla (IPA:ɡʱlə)|घ्ल|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghva (IPA:ɡʱvə)|घ्व|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghśa (IPA:ɡʱʃə)|घ्श|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghśa (IPA:ɡʱʃə)|घ्ष|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghsa (IPA:ɡʱsə)|घ्स|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghha (IPA:ɡʱhə)|घ्ह|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghḷa (IPA:ɡʱɭə)|घ्ळ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghkṣa (IPA:ɡʱkʃə)|घ्क्ष|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ghgña (IPA:ɡʱɟʝɲə)|घ्ज्ञ|dotted=no}} |- !ङ ||{{H:title|ṅka (IPA:ŋkə)|ङ्क|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅkha (IPA:ŋkʰə)|ङ्ख|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅga (IPA:ŋɡə)|ङ्ग|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅgha (IPA:ŋɡʱə)|ङ्घ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅṅa (IPA:ŋŋə)|ङ्ङ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅca (IPA:ŋcɕə)|ङ्च|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅcha (IPA:ŋcɕʰə)|ङ्छ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅja (IPA:ŋɟʝə)|ङ्ज|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅjha (IPA:ŋɟʝʱə)|ङ्झ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅña (IPA:ŋɲə)|ङ्ञ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅṭa (IPA:ŋʈə)|ङ्ट|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅṭha (IPA:ŋʈʰə)|ङ्ठ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅḍa (IPA:ŋɖə)|ङ्ड|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅḍha (IPA:ŋɖʱə)|ङ्ढ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅṇa (IPA:ŋɳə)|ङ्ण|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅta (IPA:ŋt̪ə)|ङ्त|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅtha (IPA:ŋt̪ʰə)|ङ्थ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅda (IPA:ŋd̪ə)|ङ्द|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅdha (IPA:ŋd̪ʱə)|ङ्ध|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅna (IPA:ŋn̪ə)|ङ्न|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅpa (IPA:ŋpə)|ङ्प|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅpha (IPA:ŋpʰə)|ङ्फ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅba (IPA:ŋbə)|ङ्ब|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅbha (IPA:ŋbʱə)|ङ्भ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅma (IPA:ŋmə)|ङ्म|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅya (IPA:ŋjə)|ङ्य|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅra (IPA:ŋrə)|ङ्र|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅla (IPA:ŋlə)|ङ्ल|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ṅva 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(IPA:ɭŋə)|ळ्ङ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷca (IPA:ɭcɕə)|ळ्च|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷcha (IPA:ɭcɕʰə)|ळ्छ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷja (IPA:ɭɟʝə)|ळ्ज|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷjha (IPA:ɭɟʝʱə)|ळ्झ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷña (IPA:ɭɲə)|ळ्ञ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷṭa (IPA:ɭʈə)|ळ्ट|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷṭha (IPA:ɭʈʰə)|ळ्ठ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷḍa (IPA:ɭɖə)|ळ्ड|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷḍha (IPA:ɭɖʱə)|ळ्ढ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷṇa (IPA:ɭɳə)|ळ्ण|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷta (IPA:ɭt̪ə)|ळ्त|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷtha (IPA:ɭt̪ʰə)|ळ्थ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷda (IPA:ɭd̪ə)|ळ्द|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷdha (IPA:ɭd̪ʱə)|ळ्ध|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷna (IPA:ɭn̪ə)|ळ्न|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷpa (IPA:ɭpə)|ळ्प|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷpha (IPA:ɭpʰə)|ळ्फ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷba (IPA:ɭbə)|ळ्ब|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷbha (IPA:ɭbʱə)|ळ्भ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷma (IPA:ɭmə)|ळ्म|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷya (IPA:ɭjə)|ळ्य|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷra (IPA:ɭrə)|ळ्र|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷla (IPA:ɭlə)|ळ्ल|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷva (IPA:ɭvə)|ळ्व|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷśa (IPA:ɭʃə)|ळ्श|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷśa (IPA:ɭʃə)|ळ्ष|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷsa (IPA:ɭsə)|ळ्स|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷha (IPA:ɭhə)|ळ्ह|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷḷa (IPA:ɭɭə)|ळ्ळ|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷkṣa (IPA:ɭkʃə)|ळ्क्ष|dotted=no}}||{{H:title|ḷgña (IPA:ɭɟʝɲə)|ळ्ज्ञ|dotted=no}} |} New Indo-Aryan languages may use the above forms for their Sanskrit loanwords (or otherwise). ===Accent marks=== {{Main|Vedic accent}} The [[pitch accent]] of [[Vedic Sanskrit]] is written with various symbols depending on [[shakha]]. In the [[Rigveda]], ''anudātta'' is written with a bar below the line (॒), ''svarita'' with a stroke above the line (॑) while ''udātta'' is unmarked. ===Punctuation=== {{Expand section|date=October 2008}} The end of a sentence or half-verse may be marked with a dot known as a ''{{IAST|pūrṇa virām}}'' or a vertical line ''danda'': {{script|Deva|।}}. The end of a full verse may be marked with a two vertical lines: {{script|Deva|॥}}. A comma, or ''{{IAST|alpa virām}}'', is used to denote a natural pause in speech. ===Numerals=== {{See also|Indian numerals|Brahmi numerals|Hindu-Arabic numeral system}} {| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;" |- |+ '''Devanāgarī numerals''' |- style="font-size:14pt;" | ० || १ || २ || ३ || ४ | ५ || ६ || ७ || ८ || ९ |- | 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 | 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 |} ==Transliteration== {{Main|Devanagari transliteration}} {{Main|Hunterian transliteration}} There are several methods of [[transliteration]] from Devanāgarī to the [[Latin alphabet|Roman script]], which is a process also known as '''Romanization''' in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. The [[Hunterian transliteration]] system is the "''national system of romanization in [[India]]''" and the one officially adopted by the [[Government of India]]. However, there are other transliteration options. The following are some alternative transliteration methods for Devanāgarī: ===ISO 15919=== {{Main|ISO 15919}} A standard transliteration convention was codified in the ISO 15919 standard of 2001. It uses diacritics to map the much larger set of Brahmic graphemes to the Latin script. See also: Transliteration of Indic scripts: how to use ISO 15919. The Devanāgarī-specific portion is nearly identical to the academic standard for Sanskrit, [[IAST]]. ===IAST=== The [[IAST|International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST)]] is the academic standard for the romanization of Sanskrit. IAST is the de-facto standard used in printed publications, like books and magazines, and with the wider availability of [[Unicode]] fonts, it is also increasingly used for electronic texts. It is based on a standard established by the ''Congress of Orientalists'' at [[Athens]] in 1912. The [[National Library at Kolkata romanization]], intended for the romanization of all Indic scripts, is an extension of IAST. ===Harvard-Kyoto=== Compared to IAST, [[Harvard-Kyoto]] looks much simpler. It does not contain all the diacritic marks that IAST contains. This makes typing in Harvard-Kyoto much easier than IAST. Harvard-Kyoto uses [[capital letters]] that can be difficult to read in the middle of words. ===ITRANS=== [[ITRANS]] is a lossless transliteration scheme of Devanāgarī into [[ASCII]] that is widely used on [[Usenet]]. It is an extension of the [[Harvard-Kyoto]] scheme. In ITRANS, the word ''Devanāgarī'' is written as "devanaagarii" or "devanAgarI". ITRANS is associated with an application of the same name that enables typesetting in [[Brahmic family|Indic scripts]]. The user inputs in Roman letters and the ITRANS pre-processor displays the Roman letters into Devanāgarī (or other Indic languages). The latest version of [[ITRANS]] is version 5.30 released in July, 2001. ===ALA-LC Romanization=== ALA-LC romanization is a transliteration scheme approved by the Library of Congress and the American Library Association, and widely used in North American libraries. Transliteration tables are based on languages, so there is a table for Hindi, one for Sanskrit and Prakrit, etc. ===ISCII=== [[ISCII]] is a [[fixed-length encoding|fixed-length]] 8-bit encoding. The lower 128 codepoints are plain [[ASCII]], the upper 128 codepoints are ISCII-specific. It has been designed for representing not only Devanāgarī, but also various other [[Indic scripts]] as well as a Latin-based script with diacritic marks used for transliteration of the Indic scripts. ISCII has largely been superseded by Unicode, which has however attempted to preserve the ISCII layout for its Indic language blocks. ===Devanāgarī in Unicode=== The Unicode Standard defines three blocks for Devanāgarī: Devanagari (U+0900–U+097F), Devanagari Extended (U+1CD0–U+1CFF), and Vedic Extensions (U+A8E0–U+A8FF). Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points. {{Unicode chart Devanagari}} {{Unicode chart Devanagari Extended}} {{Unicode chart Vedic Extensions}} ==Devanāgarī keyboard layouts== [[InScript]] is the standard [[Keyboard (computing)|keyboard]] layout for Devanagari. It is inbuilt in all modern major [[operating system]]s. [[Microsoft Windows]] supports the InScript layout (using the [[Mangal (font)|Mangal]] font), which can be used to input unicode Devanāgarī characters. InScript is also available in some touchscreen [[mobile phone]]s. ===InScript layout=== [[Image:Devanagari INSCRIPT Keyboard.JPG|800px|none|Devanagari INSCRIPT bilingual keyboard layout]] A Devanāgarī INSCRIPT bilingual keyboard. ===Typewriter=== This layout was used on manual typewriters when computers were not available or were uncommon. For backward compatibility some typing tools like [[Indic IME]] still provide this layout. [[Image:Hindi typewriter.jpg|800px|none|Standard typewriter keyboard layout used in India]] ===Phonetic=== Such tools work on phonetic transliteration. The user writes in roman and the [[IME]] automatically converts it into Devanagari. Some popular phonetic typing tools are [[BarahaIME]] and [[Google IME]]. [[Image:Bolnagri map.png|frame|none|240px|[[Bolnagri]] phonetic keyboard layout for Linux/GNOME]] The [[Mac OS X]] operating system supports convenient editing for the Devanāgarī script by insertion of appropriate Unicode characters with two different [[keyboard layout]]s available for use. The layout is the same as for INSCRIPT/KDE Linux. ==See also== {{Refbegin|2}} * [[Devanagari transliteration]] * [[ISCII]] * [[Nagari Pracharini Sabha]] * [[Schwa deletion in Indo-Aryan languages]] {{Refend}} ===Software=== {{Refbegin|2}} * [[Apple Type Services for Unicode Imaging]]—Macintosh * [[Pango]]—open source ([[GNOME]]) * [[Uniscribe]]—Windows * [[WorldScript]]—Macintosh, replaced by the Apple Type Services for Unicode Imaging, mentioned above {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Wikibooks|Devanagari}} {{commonscat|Devanagari stroke order}} {{commonscat|Devanagari pronunciation}} ===Information about Devanagari=== * [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/devanagari.htm Omniglot.com]—Devanāgarī Alphabet, including classical/northern variant forms of अ (a) and related letters, झ (jh), ण (ṇ) * [http://ancientscripts.com/devanagari.html AncientScripts.com]—Devanāgarī Intro * [http://www.avashy.com/hindiscripttutor.htm Hindi/Devanāgarī Script Tutor] * [http://tdil.mit.gov.in/isciiapril03.pdf IS13194:1991] standard for "ISCII" * [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0900.pdf Unicode Chart for Devanāgarī] ===Software=== * [http://www.omkarananda-ashram.org/Sanskrit/Itranslt.html Omkarananda-ashram.org], Itranslator Free program to convert Itrans to Devanagari. Uses 16-bit Unicode-compatible fonts. Works only on Windows 2000 / XP / Server 2003. * [http://www.dmjoshi.org/unicodewriter/ DMJoshi.org], To write Devanagari or Gujarati Script Devised by Dayashankar Joshi * [http://www.merosoft.webs.com/merofontconvetor.htm Merosoft.webs.com], Nepali Font Converter/Deconverter 0.3—Java Based Nepali Font Converter/Deconveter. Supports Preeti, Kantipur & Jaga—FontConverter 0.3 is the software based on java language and is used to convert non-Unicode to Unicode. This software is basically focused on Devanagari non-Unicode fonts (only for Nepali language). It works well on Preeti, Kantipur and Jaga HImali. * [http://www.bhashaindia.com/Downloadsv2/ListCategories.aspx Bhashaindia.com]—Indic script IMEs (keyboard layouts) and other Indic-language software by Microsoft Windows. * [http://devendraparakh.port5.com/ Devendraparakh.port5.com], HindiWriter—The Phonetic Hindi Writer with AutoWord lookup and Spellcheck for MS Word and OpenOffice.org for Windows. * [http://www.baraha.com/downloads.htm Baraha.com]—Devanāgarī Input using English Keyboard * [http://www.lipikaar.com Lipikaar.com]—The indic script typing tool with support for Devanāgarī through a Windows desktop executable or Firefox Extension. * [http://andregarzia.on-rev.com/richmond/home.html]—Devawriter, comprehensive Devanagari input for Windows and Macintosh. * [http://mpp.org.np/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=19&Itemid=40 instruction on how to install Devanagari/Nepali] Instructions on installing "Traditional" and "Romanized" Nepali ====Fonts==== * [http://www.devanagarifonts.net Hundreds of Devanagari fonts]—free download * [http://tdil.mit.gov.in/download/openfonts.htm Unicode Compliant Open Type Fonts] including ligature glyphs (TDIL Data Centre) * [http://www.wazu.jp/gallery/Fonts_Devanagari.html Unicode Devanagari font gallery] * [http://www.marathimati.com/Help/Download-Free-Marathi-Fonts.asp Download Free Marathi Fonts] * [http://www.nepali-fonts.tk Nepali Devanagari] fonts free download ====General resources==== * [[:hi:विकिपीडिया:इंटरनेट पर हिन्दी के साधन|A compilation of Tools and Techniques for Hindi Computing]] * [http://www.srijangatha.com/CLCategory_Args_21 Technical information for Hindi Users srijangatha.com Hindi Portal] * [http://www.mpp.org.np/downloads.php Resources for typing in the Nepali language in Devanāgarī] * [http://Devanaagarii.net/ Resources for viewing and editing Devanāgarī] * [http://www.alanwood.net/unicode/devanagari.html Unicode support for Web browsers] * [http://www.ee.adfa.edu.au/staff/hrp/personal/Sanskrit-External/unicodenotes.html Creating and Viewing Documents in Devanāgarī] ====Input methods==== * [http://www.bhashaindia.com Microsoft BhashaIndia]—Indic Language Computing resources * [http://www.cdacmumbai.in/xlit/editor Online tool for English (Roman Script) to Hindi (Devanagari script) Transliteration by CDAC Mumbai] * [http://www.unicodenepali.com Online tools for typing in Unicode Devanagari for the Nepali language] * [http://www.oopslite.com/software/nepali_keyboard.html Romanized Nepali Unicode Keyboard] developed by OOPSLite Technologies * [http://www.cdacmumbai.in/projects/indix/ IndiX, Indian language support for Linux], a site by the Indian [[National Centre for Software Technology]] * [http://girish.co.in/projects/indian_languages.html Devanāgarī Tools: Wiki Sandbox, Devanāgarī Mail, Yahoo/Google Search & Devanāgarī Transliteration] * [http://spokensanskrit.de/ttest.php Online Latin to Devanāgarī] transliteration tool * [http://andregarzia.on-rev.com/richmond/home.html Devawriter & Devawriter Pro] digitisation tools. ====Devanagari keyboard==== * [http://anektameekta.blogspot.com/2009/03/devnagri-hindi-typing-complete-solution.html TVS Devanagari Hindi keyboard] with details of keyboard layout, installation instructions for Windows/Linux, shops and online purchase * [http://www.intextechnologies.com/webpages/productcomperi.aspx?pro_name=Swadeshi&category=Computer%20Peripherals&subcat=Keyboards&subcat1=K/B%20Multimedia Intex Technologies Swadeshi bilingual Hindi keyboard], keyboard layout is Hindi Typewriter {{Hindi topics|state=collapsed}} {{Marathi language topics}} {{list of writing systems}}