De re publica
Encyclopedia
De re publica is a dialogue on Roman politics by Cicero
, written in six book
s between 54 and 51 BC
. It is written in the format of a Socratic dialogue
in which Scipio Africanus Minor (who had died a few decades before Cicero was born, several centuries after Socrates
' death) takes the role of a wise old man — an obligatory part for the genre. Cicero's treatise was politically
controversial: by choosing the format of a philosophical
dialogue he avoided naming his political adversaries directly. Cicero employed various speakers to raise differing opinions in an attempt to make it more difficult for these adversaries to take him to task on what he had written.
, or "Scipio's dream".
" (appearing in a deflection in the title of this work) later evolved, with some shifts of meaning, to republic
, or a similar term in many languages, there is no general consensus over the interpretation of the connotations implied by these expressions.
, which is only a part from the 6th book, is nearly all that survives from that book. The Somnium Scipionis, as it is known, survives because it was the subject of a commentary by Macrobius, who excerpted large portions; both he and his readers in the Middle Ages and Renaissance were mainly interested in its discussion of astrology and astronomy, especially given the loss of the rest of the book. An enterprising copyist early in the textual tradition appended a copy of the Somnium to a copy of Macrobius's Commentary, but this copy appears to be inferior to the one Macrobius was reading. This text became so popular that its transmission was polluted by multiple copies; it has been impossible to establish a stemma for it.
The largest part of the surviving text was uncovered as a palimpsest
in 1822 in a Vatican Library manuscript (Vat Lat 5757) of a work by Augustine. Before that date Scipio's dream was the only larger excerpt of the text that was known to have survived the Middle Ages
. The other fragments are mainly quotes found in the work of other authors (for example Augustine
and Nonius Marcellus
). Through these other authors' discussion of Cicero's treatise, the main topics of each book can be surmised.
The discovery in 1822 by Cardinal Angelo Mai
was one of the first major recoveries of an ancient text from a palimpsest, and although Mai's techniques were crude by comparison with later scholars', his discovery of De Republica heralded a new era of rediscovery and inspired him and other scholars of his time to seek more palimpsests.
A photostat was published in the 19th century by the Vatican library, and a transcript is available in the 1908 Supplementary Proceedings of the American School of Rome. Uncertainty continues over several corruptions in the text that affect key data, such as the structure and size of the Comitia Centuriata in early Rome as described by Scipio in Book II. Another key area of debate is the one corrective hand present in Vat Lat 5757; some scholars believe the corrective hand was a more skilled copyist, perhaps a supervisor, who had access to the same text as the copyist and was correcting the first work; others have concluded that the corrective hand had access to a different version of the text.
It is worth noting that in one letter to his friend Atticus, Cicero asks him to make a correction to the copy of De Republica Cicero has sent him. This correction is not present in the Vat Lat 5757 version of the text.
was also an important source of inspiration for Cicero's political views.
Since not all of the work survives, some of the content is surmised from references by other ancient authors.
Book one: Contains a discussion between the protagonists of the political situation of their time. The theme of the work is given and some comments are made about the theory of constitutions.
Book two: An outline of Roman history and the development of the constitution
.
Book three: The role of justice in government
is examined, as are the different types of constitutions.
Book four: A discourse about education
.
Book five: The characters converse about the qualities of the ideal citizen in government
.
Book Six: Little of this book survives except the Somnium Scipionis, which functions as the conclusion to the work.
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero , was a Roman philosopher, statesman, lawyer, political theorist, and Roman constitutionalist. He came from a wealthy municipal family of the equestrian order, and is widely considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists.He introduced the Romans to the chief...
, written in six book
Book
A book is a set or collection of written, printed, illustrated, or blank sheets, made of hot lava, paper, parchment, or other materials, usually fastened together to hinge at one side. A single sheet within a book is called a leaf or leaflet, and each side of a leaf is called a page...
s between 54 and 51 BC
51 BC
Year 51 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Marcellus and Sulpicius...
. It is written in the format of a Socratic dialogue
Socratic dialogue
Socratic dialogue is a genre of prose literary works developed in Greece at the turn of the fourth century BC, preserved today in the dialogues of Plato and the Socratic works of Xenophon - either dramatic or narrative - in which characters discuss moral and philosophical problems, illustrating a...
in which Scipio Africanus Minor (who had died a few decades before Cicero was born, several centuries after Socrates
Socrates
Socrates was a classical Greek Athenian philosopher. Credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, he is an enigmatic figure known chiefly through the accounts of later classical writers, especially the writings of his students Plato and Xenophon, and the plays of his contemporary ...
' death) takes the role of a wise old man — an obligatory part for the genre. Cicero's treatise was politically
Politics
Politics is a process by which groups of people make collective decisions. The term is generally applied to the art or science of running governmental or state affairs, including behavior within civil governments, but also applies to institutions, fields, and special interest groups such as the...
controversial: by choosing the format of a philosophical
Philosophy
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
dialogue he avoided naming his political adversaries directly. Cicero employed various speakers to raise differing opinions in an attempt to make it more difficult for these adversaries to take him to task on what he had written.
Setting
The dialogue is portrayed as taking place in Scipio's estate, during three consecutive days. Each day is described in two books, with an introduction by Cicero preceding the dialogue of each book. A large part of the last book (the sixth) is taken by Scipio telling a dream he had: this passage is known as Somnium ScipionisDream of Scipio
The Dream of Scipio , written by Cicero, is the sixth book of De re publica, and describes a fictional dream vision of the Roman general Scipio Aemilianus, set two years before he commanded at the destruction of Carthage in 146 BCE.Upon his arrival in Africa, Scipio Aemilianus is visited by his...
, or "Scipio's dream".
Participants
In alphabetical order:- Fannius, C.: ConsulConsulConsul was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire. The title was also used in other city states and also revived in modern states, notably in the First French Republic...
in 122 BC122 BCYear 122 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Ahenobarbus and Fannius...
. Follower of StoicismStoicismStoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early . The Stoics taught that destructive emotions resulted from errors in judgment, and that a sage, or person of "moral and intellectual perfection," would not suffer such emotions.Stoics were concerned...
, historianHistorianA historian is a person who studies and writes about the past and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race; as well as the study of all history in time. If the individual is...
and orator. Son-in-law to Laelius. - LaeliusLaeliusLaelius is a personal name and can refer to:*Gaius Laelius, a Roman statesman, who was consul in 190 BC and friend of Scipio Africanus*Gaius Laelius Sapiens , a Roman statesman, son of the above, who was consul in 140 BC, and was friend to Scipio's adoptive grandson Scipio Aemilianus*Laelius de...
(or: Lœlius), C.: Close friend and associate of Scipio, Consul in 140 BC140 BCYear 140 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Sapiens and Caepio...
, promoter of the study of literatureLiteratureLiterature is the art of written works, and is not bound to published sources...
and PhilosophyPhilosophyPhilosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
. - ManiliusManiliusManilius may refer to one of the following:*Manius Manilius, consul*Marcus Manilius, Roman poet and astrologer*Gaius Manilius, Roman tribune*Manilius , a Lunar crater, named after Marcus Manilius----...
, M'.: Consul in 149 BC149 BCYear 149 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Censorinus and Manilius...
. Historian and legal scholar. - Mucius ScaevolaMucius ScaevolaMucius Scaevola is the name of:* Gaius Mucius Scaevola, a legendary hero at the beginning of the Roman Republic* Quintus Mucius Scaevola , praetor 215 BC and gernor of Sardinia* Quintus Mucius Scaevola , consul 174 BC...
(or: Scævola), Q.: Legal scholar and patronPatrónPatrón is a luxury brand of tequila produced in Mexico and sold in hand-blown, individually numbered bottles.Made entirely from Blue Agave "piñas" , Patrón comes in five varieties: Silver, Añejo, Reposado, Gran Patrón Platinum and Gran Patrón Burdeos. Patrón also sells a tequila-coffee blend known...
of the young Cicero. Son-in-law to Laelius. - Mummius, Sp.: Satirist and extreme defender of optimateOptimatesThe optimates were the traditionalist majority of the late Roman Republic. They wished to limit the power of the popular assemblies and the Tribunes of the Plebs, and to extend the power of the Senate, which was viewed as more dedicated to the interests of the aristocrats who held the reins of power...
interests. Brother of Lucius Mummius - Philus, L. Furius: Consul 136 BC136 BCYear 136 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Philus and Serranus...
, orator - Rutilius Rufus, P.: PoliticianPoliticianA politician, political leader, or political figure is an individual who is involved in influencing public policy and decision making...
admired for his honesty, dedicated to Stoicism. - Scipio Aemilianus AfricanusScipio Aemilianus AfricanusPublius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus Africanus Numantinus , also known as Scipio Aemilianus or Scipio Africanus the Younger, was a leading general and politician of the ancient Roman Republic...
, P. Cornelius, 195–129 BC129 BCYear 129 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Tuditanus and Aquillius...
: Famous military and political leader 149–129 BC. Captured and destroyed CarthageCarthageCarthage , implying it was a 'new Tyre') is a major urban centre that has existed for nearly 3,000 years on the Gulf of Tunis, developing from a Phoenician colony of the 1st millennium BC...
in 146 BC146 BCYear 146 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Lentulus and Achaicus...
. Restored order after assassination of Tiberius GracchusTiberius GracchusTiberius Sempronius Gracchus was a Roman Populares politician of the 2nd century BC and brother of Gaius Gracchus. As a plebeian tribune, his reforms of agrarian legislation caused political turmoil in the Republic. These reforms threatened the holdings of rich landowners in Italy...
in 133 BC133 BCYear 133 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Scaevola and Frugi...
and mediated between the political factions. Died suddenly and mysteriously in 129 BC. - Tubero, Q. Aelius: Scipio's nephew, tribune c. 129 BC. Legal scholar dedicated to Stoicism.
The Title of the Dialogue
While already the Latin version of the title of this work is given in two versions (De re publica and De Republica), depending on source, the translation of the title of this work knows even more variants, often indicating the stance of the translator: since the expression "res publicaRes publica
Res publica is a Latin phrase, loosely meaning "public affair". It is the root of the word republic, and the word commonwealth has traditionally been used as a synonym for it; however translations vary widely according to the context...
" (appearing in a deflection in the title of this work) later evolved, with some shifts of meaning, to republic
Republic
A republic is a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people. In modern times, a common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of...
, or a similar term in many languages, there is no general consensus over the interpretation of the connotations implied by these expressions.
English translations of the title of Cicero's De re publica
De re publica is referred to as...- (The) Republic - that translation neglects the first word of the Latin title, which is the equivalent of On, so other translations of the title include On the republic or Treatise on the republic.
- Although "republic" can appear a neutral translation of "res publica", it is infected by the many interpretations given to the word republic afterwards, as mentioned above. So, the translation of "Res publica" (literally the "public thing" or the public cause) has many variants:
- Sometimes "Res publica" is translated into CommonwealthCommonwealthCommonwealth is a traditional English term for a political community founded for the common good. Historically, it has sometimes been synonymous with "republic."More recently it has been used for fraternal associations of some sovereign nations...
, hence Treatise on the Commonwealth is a possible translation of the title - On Government or On the State - Cicero's intention was however probably more specific, the type of government that had been established in Rome since the kings, and that was challenged by amongst others Julius CaesarJulius CaesarGaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman and a distinguished writer of Latin prose. He played a critical role in the gradual transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire....
, by the time Cicero wrote his De re publica. (see: Roman RepublicRoman RepublicThe Roman Republic was the period of the ancient Roman civilization where the government operated as a republic. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, traditionally dated around 508 BC, and its replacement by a government headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and...
)
- Sometimes "Res publica" is translated into Commonwealth
History of the text
Large parts of the text are missing: especially from the 4th and the 5th book only minor fragments survived. All other books have at least some passages missing. Scipio's dreamDream of Scipio
The Dream of Scipio , written by Cicero, is the sixth book of De re publica, and describes a fictional dream vision of the Roman general Scipio Aemilianus, set two years before he commanded at the destruction of Carthage in 146 BCE.Upon his arrival in Africa, Scipio Aemilianus is visited by his...
, which is only a part from the 6th book, is nearly all that survives from that book. The Somnium Scipionis, as it is known, survives because it was the subject of a commentary by Macrobius, who excerpted large portions; both he and his readers in the Middle Ages and Renaissance were mainly interested in its discussion of astrology and astronomy, especially given the loss of the rest of the book. An enterprising copyist early in the textual tradition appended a copy of the Somnium to a copy of Macrobius's Commentary, but this copy appears to be inferior to the one Macrobius was reading. This text became so popular that its transmission was polluted by multiple copies; it has been impossible to establish a stemma for it.
The largest part of the surviving text was uncovered as a palimpsest
Palimpsest
A palimpsest is a manuscript page from a scroll or book from which the text has been scraped off and which can be used again. The word "palimpsest" comes through Latin palimpsēstus from Ancient Greek παλίμψηστος originally compounded from πάλιν and ψάω literally meaning “scraped...
in 1822 in a Vatican Library manuscript (Vat Lat 5757) of a work by Augustine. Before that date Scipio's dream was the only larger excerpt of the text that was known to have survived the Middle Ages
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
. The other fragments are mainly quotes found in the work of other authors (for example Augustine
Augustine of Hippo
Augustine of Hippo , also known as Augustine, St. Augustine, St. Austin, St. Augoustinos, Blessed Augustine, or St. Augustine the Blessed, was Bishop of Hippo Regius . He was a Latin-speaking philosopher and theologian who lived in the Roman Africa Province...
and Nonius Marcellus
Nonius Marcellus
Nonius Marcellus was a Roman grammarian of the 4th or 5th century AD. His only surviving work is the De compendiosa doctrina, a dictionary or encyclopedia in 20 books that shows his interests in antiquarianism and Latin literature from Plautus to Apuleius. Nonius may have come from...
). Through these other authors' discussion of Cicero's treatise, the main topics of each book can be surmised.
The discovery in 1822 by Cardinal Angelo Mai
Angelo Mai
Angelo Mai was an Italian Cardinal and philologist. He won a European reputation for publishing for the first time a series of previously unknown ancient texts. These he was able to discover and publish, first while in charge of the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan and then in the same role at the...
was one of the first major recoveries of an ancient text from a palimpsest, and although Mai's techniques were crude by comparison with later scholars', his discovery of De Republica heralded a new era of rediscovery and inspired him and other scholars of his time to seek more palimpsests.
A photostat was published in the 19th century by the Vatican library, and a transcript is available in the 1908 Supplementary Proceedings of the American School of Rome. Uncertainty continues over several corruptions in the text that affect key data, such as the structure and size of the Comitia Centuriata in early Rome as described by Scipio in Book II. Another key area of debate is the one corrective hand present in Vat Lat 5757; some scholars believe the corrective hand was a more skilled copyist, perhaps a supervisor, who had access to the same text as the copyist and was correcting the first work; others have concluded that the corrective hand had access to a different version of the text.
It is worth noting that in one letter to his friend Atticus, Cicero asks him to make a correction to the copy of De Republica Cicero has sent him. This correction is not present in the Vat Lat 5757 version of the text.
Content
Apart from the Greek philosophers mentioned above, PolybiusPolybius
Polybius , Greek ) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic Period noted for his work, The Histories, which covered the period of 220–146 BC in detail. The work describes in part the rise of the Roman Republic and its gradual domination over Greece...
was also an important source of inspiration for Cicero's political views.
Since not all of the work survives, some of the content is surmised from references by other ancient authors.
Book one: Contains a discussion between the protagonists of the political situation of their time. The theme of the work is given and some comments are made about the theory of constitutions.
Book two: An outline of Roman history and the development of the constitution
Constitution
A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i.e. constitute, what the entity is...
.
Book three: The role of justice in government
Government
Government refers to the legislators, administrators, and arbitrators in the administrative bureaucracy who control a state at a given time, and to the system of government by which they are organized...
is examined, as are the different types of constitutions.
Book four: A discourse about education
Education
Education in its broadest, general sense is the means through which the aims and habits of a group of people lives on from one generation to the next. Generally, it occurs through any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts...
.
Book five: The characters converse about the qualities of the ideal citizen in government
Government
Government refers to the legislators, administrators, and arbitrators in the administrative bureaucracy who control a state at a given time, and to the system of government by which they are organized...
.
Book Six: Little of this book survives except the Somnium Scipionis, which functions as the conclusion to the work.
Quotes
- Nimiaque illa libertas et populis et privatis in nimiam servitutem cadit. (I, 68) This excessive liberty soon brings the people, collectively and individually, to an excessive servitude.
External links
- Project GutenbergProject GutenbergProject Gutenberg is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, to "encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks". Founded in 1971 by Michael S. Hart, it is the oldest digital library. Most of the items in its collection are the full texts of public domain books...
: On the Commonwealth is contained in C.D. Yonge's literal translation of three philosophical works by Cicero, with notes and some quotes in Latin - Translation of De re publica by Francis Barham, with detailed introductions, from The Online Library of Liberty (available in HTML, PDF facsimile and PDF e-book)
- De re publica in Latin:
- (separate books:) http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/repub.shtml
- (complete on one page:) http://www.biblio-net.com/lett_cla/testi/de_re_pubblica.htm (dead end on 2009_11_01)
- (complete on one page:) http://web.archive.org/web/20071119092936/http://www.biblio-net.com/lett_cla/testi/de_re_pubblica.htm (archive.org copy of above link)