David Llewelyn Wark Griffith (January 22, 1875 – July 23, 1948) was a premier pioneering American film director. He is best known as the director of the controversial and groundbreaking 1915 film
The Birth of a NationThe Birth of a Nation is a 1915 American silent film directed by D. W. Griffith and based on the novel and play The Clansman, both by Thomas Dixon, Jr. Griffith also co-wrote the screenplay , and co-produced the film . It was released on February 8, 1915...
and the subsequent film
IntoleranceIntolerance is a 1916 American silent film directed by D. W. Griffith and is considered one of the great masterpieces of the Silent Era. The three-and-a-half hour epic intercuts four parallel storylines each separated by several centuries: A contemporary melodrama of crime and redemption; a...
(1916).
Griffith's film
The Birth of a Nation made pioneering use of advanced camera and narrative techniques, and its immense popularity set the stage for the dominance of the
feature-length filmFeature length is motion picture terminology referring to the length of a feature film. According to the rules of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, a feature length motion picture must have a running time of more than 40 minutes to be eligible for an Academy Award.The term may also...
. It also proved extremely controversial at the time and ever since for its negative depiction of Black Americans and their supporters, and its positive portrayal of slavery and the
Ku Klux KlanKu Klux Klan, often abbreviated KKK and informally known as the Klan, is the name of three distinct past and present far-right organizations in the United States, which have advocated extremist reactionary currents such as white supremacy, white nationalism, and anti-immigration, historically...
. Griffith responded to his critics with his next film,
Intolerance, intended to show the dangers of prejudiced thought and behavior. The film was not the financial success that its predecessor had been, but was received warmly by critics. Several of his later films were also successful, but high production, promotional, and
roadshowA roadshow theatrical release was a term in the American motion picture industry for a practice in which a film opened in a limited number of theaters in large cities like Los Angeles, New York, Chicago, Houston, Atlanta, Dallas, and San Francisco for a specific period of time before the...
costs often made his ventures commercial failures. Even so, he is generally considered one of the most important figures of early cinema.
Early life
Griffith, of Welsh ancestry, was born in
CrestwoodCrestwood is a city in Oldham County, Kentucky, United States just outside of Louisville, Ky's Northeast End. The population was 1,999 at the 2000 census. CNN listed it as the 52nd best place to live in America in 2005...
, Kentucky to Jacob "Roaring Jake" Griffith and Mary Perkins Griffith. His father was a
Confederate ArmyThe Confederate States Army was the army of the Confederate States of America while the Confederacy existed during the American Civil War. On February 8, 1861, delegates from the seven Deep South states which had already declared their secession from the United States of America adopted the...
colonel in the
American Civil WarThe American Civil War was a civil war fought in the United States of America. In response to the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, 11 southern slave states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America ; the other 25...
and a Kentucky legislator. He was raised as a Methodist. D. W. was educated by his older sister, Mattie, in a one-room country school. His father died when he was seven, upon which the family experienced serious financial hardships. At age 14, Griffith's mother abandoned the farm and moved the family to
LouisvilleLouisville is the largest city in the U.S. state of Kentucky, and the county seat of Jefferson County. Since 2003, the city's borders have been coterminous with those of the county because of a city-county merger. The city's population at the 2010 census was 741,096...
where she opened a boarding house, which failed shortly after. Griffith left high school to help with the finances, taking a job first in a dry goods store, and later in a bookstore.
Griffith began his career as a hopeful playwright but met with little success; only one of his plays was accepted for a performance. Griffith decided instead to become an actor, and appeared in many plays as an extra.
Film career
In 1907, Griffith, still having goals for becoming a successful
playwrightA playwright, also called a dramatist, is a person who writes plays.The term is not a variant spelling of "playwrite", but something quite distinct: the word wright is an archaic English term for a craftsman or builder...
, went to
New YorkNew York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
and attempted to sell a script to
Edison StudiosEdison Studios was an American motion picture production company owned by the Edison Company of inventor Thomas Edison. The studio made close to 1,200 films as the Edison Manufacturing Company and Thomas A. Edison, Inc. until the studio's closing in 1918...
producer Edwin Porter. Porter rejected Griffith's script, but gave him an acting part in
Rescued from an Eagle's NestRescued from an Eagle's Nest is a 1908 early silent action-drama co- directed by Edwin S Porter and J. Searle Dawley for the Edison film studios....
. Finding himself at home in the motion picture business, he soon began to direct a huge body of work. In 1908, Griffith accepted an acting job for the
American Mutoscope and Biograph CompanyThe American Mutoscope and Biograph Company, was a motion picture company founded in 1895 and active until 1928. It was the first company in the United States devoted entirely to film production and exhibition, and for two decades was one of the most prolific, releasing over three thousand short...
, commonly known as Biograph, in New York City. At Biograph, Griffith's career in the film industry would also change forever. In 1908, Biograph's main director Wallace McCutcheon grew ill, and his son, Wallace McCutcheon, Jr., took his place. McCutcheon, Jr., however, was not able to bring the studio success. As a result, Biograph head Henry Marvin decided to give Griffith the position; Griffith then made his first movie for the company,
The Adventures of Dollie.
Biograph was the first company to shoot a film in Hollywood, California, the film
In Old CaliforniaIn Old California is a silent movie filmed in 1910. It was the first movie shot in Hollywood, California. It was directed by D. W. Griffith of the Biograph Company . The film is a melodrama about the Mexican era of California.-Background:Director D.W...
(1910). Influenced by the Italian feature film
CabiriaCabiria is a silent movie from the early years of Italy's movie industry, directed by Giovanni Pastrone . The movie is set in ancient Sicily, Carthage, and Cirta during the period of the Second Punic War . It follows a melodramatic main plot about an abducted little girl, Cabiria, and features...
(1914), Griffith was convinced that feature films were commercially viable. He produced and directed the Biograph film
Judith of BethuliaJudith of Bethulia is a film starring Blanche Sweet and Henry B. Walthall. The film was produced and directed by D. W. Griffith and was the first feature-length film made by pioneering film company Biograph, although the second that Biograph released....
(1914), one of the earliest feature films to be produced in the United States. At the time Biograph believed that longer features were not viable. According to actress
Lillian GishLillian Diana Gish was an American stage, screen and television actress whose film acting career spanned 75 years, from 1912 to 1987....
, "[Biograph] thought that a movie that long would hurt [the audience's] eyes".
Because of this, and the film's
budgetFilm budgeting refers to the process by which a line producer, unit production manager or filmmaker prepares a budget for a film production. This document, which could be over 150 pages long, is used to secure financing for the film and lead to pre-production and production of the film. Multiple...
overrun (it cost US$30,000 dollars to produce), Griffith left Biograph and took his whole stock company of actors with him. He joined the Mutual Film Corporation and formed a studio, with Majestic Studio manager Harry Aitken known as Reliance-Majestic Studios (which was later renamed Fine Arts Studio). His new production company became an autonomous production unit partner in
Triangle Film CorporationTriangle Film Corporation was a major American motion-picture studio, founded in the summer of 1915 in Culver City, California, and envisioned as a prestige studio based on the producing abilities of filmmakers D. W. Griffith, Thomas Ince and Mack Sennett...
along with
Thomas InceThomas Harper Ince was an American silent film actor, director, screenwriter and producer of more than 100 films and pioneering studio mogul. Known as the "Father of the Western", he invented many mechanisms of professional movie production, introducing early Hollywood to the "assembly line"...
and
Keystone Studios'Keystone Studios was an early movie studio founded in Edendale, California in 1912 as the Keystone Pictures Studio by Mack Sennett with backing from Adam Kessel and Charles O. Bauman, owners of the New York Motion Picture Company...
Mack SennettMack Sennett was a Canadian-born American director and was known as the innovator of slapstick comedy in film. During his lifetime he was known at times as the "King of Comedy"...
; the Triangle Film Corporation was headed by Griffith's partner Harry Aitken, who was released from the Mutual Film Corporation and his brother Roy. Through
Reliance-Majestic StudiosReliance-Majestic Studios was an early American movie studio in Hollywood, California, originally built around 1914 at 4516 Sunset Boulevard.Within a few years, it became the home of D. W. Griffith and Mutual Film Corporation. Later the studio's name was changed to Fine Arts Studios, and was...
, he produced
The ClansmanThe Birth of a Nation is a 1915 American silent film directed by D. W. Griffith and based on the novel and play The Clansman, both by Thomas Dixon, Jr. Griffith also co-wrote the screenplay , and co-produced the film . It was released on February 8, 1915...
(1915), which would later be known as
The Birth of a NationThe Birth of a Nation is a 1915 American silent film directed by D. W. Griffith and based on the novel and play The Clansman, both by Thomas Dixon, Jr. Griffith also co-wrote the screenplay , and co-produced the film . It was released on February 8, 1915...
.
Historically,
The Birth of a Nation was the first
blockbuster. It is considered important by film historians as one of the first
feature lengthFeature length is motion picture terminology referring to the length of a feature film. According to the rules of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, a feature length motion picture must have a running time of more than 40 minutes to be eligible for an Academy Award.The term may also...
American films (most previous films had been less than one hour long), and it changed the industry's standard in a way still influential today. It was enormously popular, breaking box office records, but aroused controversy due to its depiction of slavery race relations in the Civil War and the Reconstruction era. Like its source material,
Thomas Dixon, Jr.Thomas F. Dixon, Jr. was an American Baptist minister, playwright, lecturer, North Carolina state legislator, lawyer, and author, perhaps best known for writing The Clansman — which was to become the inspiration for D. W...
's 1905 novel
The ClansmanThe Clansman: An Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan is the title of a novel published in 1905. It was the second work in the Ku Klux Klan trilogy by Thomas F. Dixon, Jr. that included The Leopard's Spots and The Traitor. It was influential in providing the ideology that helped support the...
, it depicts Southern pre-Civil War slavery as benign, the enfranchisement of
freedmanA freedman is a former slave who has been released from slavery, usually by legal means. Historically, slaves became freedmen either by manumission or emancipation ....
as a corrupt
RepublicanThe Republican Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Democratic Party. Founded by anti-slavery expansion activists in 1854, it is often called the GOP . The party's platform generally reflects American conservatism in the U.S...
plot, and the
Ku Klux KlanKu Klux Klan, often abbreviated KKK and informally known as the Klan, is the name of three distinct past and present far-right organizations in the United States, which have advocated extremist reactionary currents such as white supremacy, white nationalism, and anti-immigration, historically...
as a band of heroes restoring the rightful order. This view of the era was popular at the time, and was endorsed by historians of the
Dunning SchoolThe Dunning School refers to a group of historians who shared a historiographical school of thought regarding the Reconstruction period of American history .-About:...
for decades, although it met with strong criticism from the
National Association for the Advancement of Colored PeopleThe National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, usually abbreviated as NAACP, is an African-American civil rights organization in the United States, formed in 1909. Its mission is "to ensure the political, educational, social, and economic equality of rights of all persons and to...
and other groups. However, attempts by the NAACP to stop showings of the film failed, and it went on to become the most successful box office attraction of its time. "They lost track of the money it made",
Lillian GishLillian Diana Gish was an American stage, screen and television actress whose film acting career spanned 75 years, from 1912 to 1987....
once remarked in a
Kevin BrownlowKevin Brownlow is a filmmaker, film historian, television documentary-maker, author, and Academy Award recipient. Brownlow is best known for his work documenting the history of the silent era. Brownlow became interested in silent film at the age of eleven. This interest grew into a career spent...
interview. Among the people who profited by the film was
Louis B. MayerLouis Burt Mayer born Lazar Meir was an American film producer. He is generally cited as the creator of the "star system" within Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in its golden years. Known always as Louis B...
, who bought the rights to distribute
The Birth of a NationThe Birth of a Nation is a 1915 American silent film directed by D. W. Griffith and based on the novel and play The Clansman, both by Thomas Dixon, Jr. Griffith also co-wrote the screenplay , and co-produced the film . It was released on February 8, 1915...
in
New EnglandNew England is a region in the northeastern corner of the United States consisting of the six states of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut...
. With the money he made, he was able to begin his career as a producer that culminated in the creation of
Metro-Goldwyn-MayerMetro-Goldwyn-Mayer Inc. is an American media company, involved primarily in the production and distribution of films and television programs. MGM was founded in 1924 when the entertainment entrepreneur Marcus Loew gained control of Metro Pictures, Goldwyn Pictures Corporation and Louis B. Mayer...
studios.
After seeing
The Birth of a Nation, audiences in some major northern cities also responded by rioting over the film's racial content. After
The Birth of a Nation had run its course in theaters, Griffith would also respond to the negative reception a vast amount of critics gave the film through his next film
IntoleranceIntolerance is a 1916 American silent film directed by D. W. Griffith and is considered one of the great masterpieces of the Silent Era. The three-and-a-half hour epic intercuts four parallel storylines each separated by several centuries: A contemporary melodrama of crime and redemption; a...
, which dealt with the effects of intolerance in four different historical periods: the
Fall of BabylonThe Battle of Opis, fought in September 539 BC, was a major engagement between the armies of Persia under Cyrus the Great and the Neo-Babylonian Empire under Nabonidus during the Persian invasion of Mesopotamia. At the time, Babylonia was the last major power in western Asia that was not yet under...
; the
Crucifixion of JesusThe crucifixion of Jesus and his ensuing death is an event that occurred during the 1st century AD. Jesus, who Christians believe is the Son of God as well as the Messiah, was arrested, tried, and sentenced by Pontius Pilate to be scourged, and finally executed on a cross...
; the events surrounding the
St. Bartholomew's Day massacreThe St. Bartholomew's Day massacre in 1572 was a targeted group of assassinations, followed by a wave of Roman Catholic mob violence, both directed against the Huguenots , during the French Wars of Religion...
; and a modern story. During its release
Intolerance was not a financial success; although it had good box office turn-outs, the film did not bring in enough profits to cover the lavish road show that accompanied it. Like
The Birth Of A Nation, Griffith put a huge budget into the film's production, which was also a key factor in its failure at the box office. The production partnership was dissolved in 1917, so Griffith went to Artcraft (part of
ParamountParamount Pictures Corporation is an American film production and distribution company, located at 5555 Melrose Avenue in Hollywood. Founded in 1912 and currently owned by media conglomerate Viacom, it is America's oldest existing film studio; it is also the last major film studio still...
), then to
First NationalFirst National was an association of independent theater owners in the United States that expanded from exhibiting movies to distributing them, and eventually to producing them as a movie studio, called First National Pictures, Inc. It later merged with Warner Bros.-Early history:The First National...
(1919–1920). At the same time he founded
United ArtistsUnited Artists Corporation is an American film studio. The original studio of that name was founded in 1919 by D. W. Griffith, Charles Chaplin, Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks....
, together with
Charlie ChaplinSir Charles Spencer "Charlie" Chaplin, KBE was an English comic actor, film director and composer best known for his work during the silent film era. He became the most famous film star in the world before the end of World War I...
,
Mary PickfordMary Pickford was a Canadian-born motion picture actress, co-founder of the film studio United Artists and one of the original 36 founders of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences...
, and
Douglas FairbanksDouglas Fairbanks, Sr. was an American actor, screenwriter, director and producer. He was best known for his swashbuckling roles in silent films such as The Thief of Bagdad, Robin Hood, and The Mark of Zorro....
. At United Artists, Griffith continued to make films, but never could achieve box office grosses as high as either
The Birth of a Nation or
Intolerance.
Griffith was also a producer on the 1915 movie
Martyrs of the AlamoMartyrs of the Alamo is an American film directed by Christy Cabanne.- Cast :*Sam De Grasse as Silent Smith*Allan Sears as David Crockett*Walter Long as Santa Anna*Alfred Paget as James Bowie*Fred Burns as Captain Dickinson...
.
Later film career
Though
United ArtistsUnited Artists Corporation is an American film studio. The original studio of that name was founded in 1919 by D. W. Griffith, Charles Chaplin, Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks....
survived as a company, Griffith's association with it was short-lived, and while some of his later films did well at the box office, commercial success often eluded him. Griffith features from this period include
Broken BlossomsBroken Blossoms or The Yellow Man and the Girl is a 1919 silent film directed by D.W. Griffith. It was distributed by United Artists and premiered on May 13, 1919...
(1919),
Way Down EastWay Down East is a silent film directed by D. W. Griffith and starring Lillian Gish. It is the best known of four film adaptations of the melodramatic 19th century play Way Down East by Lottie Blair Parker...
(1920),
Orphans of the StormOrphans of the Storm is a drama film by D. W. Griffith set in late 18th century France, before and during the French Revolution.This was the last Griffith film to feature Lillian and Dorothy Gish, and is often considered Griffith's last major commercial success, after boxoffice hits such as Birth...
(1921),
Dream StreetDream Street is a silent movie directed by D. W. Griffith, and starring Carol Dempster, Charles Emmett Mack, and Ralph Graves in a story about a love triangle set in London, and based on two short stories by Thomas Burke, "Gina of Chinatown" and "Song of the Lamp"...
(1921),
One Exciting NightOne Exciting Night is a 1922 American Gothic silent Mystery film directed by D. W. Griffith.The plot revolves around the murder of a bootlegger and the attempts of the cast to uncover the true murderer...
(1922) and
America (1924). Of these, the first three were successes at the box office.
Griffith was forced to leave United Artists after
Isn't Life WonderfulIsn't Life Wonderful? is a film, directed by D. W. Griffith for his company D. W. Griffith Productions, and distributed by United Artists. It was based on the novel by Geoffrey Moss and it went under the alternative title Dawn. The title of the film was spoofed in the Charlie Chase comedy Isn't...
(1924) failed at the box office, and returned to his job as a director. Griffith made a part-talkie
Lady of the PavementsLady of the Pavements is a silent film directed by D. W. Griffith and starring Lupe Vélez, William Boyd, and Jetta Goudal. Griffith reshot the film to include a couple of musical numbers, making it a part-talkie.-Preservation:The Vitaphone sound-on-disc system was employed for sound sequences...
(1929) and only two full-sound films,
Abraham LincolnAbraham Lincoln, also released under the title D. W. Griffith's 'Abraham Lincoln', is a biographical film about American president Abraham Lincoln directed by D. W. Griffith. It stars Walter Huston as Lincoln and Una Merkel, in her first talking role, as Ann Rutledge...
(1930) and
The StruggleThe Struggle is a sound feature film directed by D. W. Griffith, and was his only other full-sound film besides Abraham Lincoln . After several films directed by Griffith failed at the box office, this was Griffith's last film...
(1931). Neither was successful, and he never made another film.
In 1936, director Woody Van Dyke who had worked as Griffith's apprentice on
Intolerance, asked Griffith to help him shoot the famous earthquake sequence for
San FranciscoSan Francisco is a 1936 musical-drama directed by Woody Van Dyke, based on the April 18, 1906 San Francisco earthquake. The film, which was the top grossing movie of that year, stars Clark Gable, Jeanette MacDonald, and Spencer Tracy. The then very popular singing of MacDonald helped make this film...
. Though Griffith was uncredited, the
Clark GableWilliam Clark Gable , known as Clark Gable, was an American film actor most famous for his role as Rhett Butler in the 1939 Civil War epic film Gone with the Wind, in which he starred with Vivien Leigh...
–
Jeanette MacDonaldJeanette MacDonald was an American singer and actress best remembered for her musical films of the 1930s with Maurice Chevalier and Nelson Eddy...
–
Spencer TracySpencer Bonaventure Tracy was an American theatrical and film actor, who appeared in 75 films from 1930 to 1967. Tracy was one of the major stars of Hollywood's Golden Age, ranking among the top ten box office draws for almost every year from 1938 to 1951...
blockbuster was the top-grossing film of the year.
In 1939, producer
Hal RoachHarold Eugene "Hal" Roach, Sr. was an American film and television producer and director, and from the 1910s to the 1990s.- Early life and career :Hal Roach was born in Elmira, New York...
hired Griffith to produce
Of Mice and MenOf Mice and Men is a 1939 film based on the novella of the same title by American author John Steinbeck. It stars Burgess Meredith, Betty Field, Lon Chaney, Jr., Charles Bickford, Roman Bohnen, Bob Steele and Noah Beery, Jr...
(1939) and
One Million B.C.One Million B.C. is a 1940 American fantasy film produced by Hal Roach Studios and released by United Artists. It is also known by the titles Cave Man, Man and His Mate, and Tumak....
(1940), writing to him, "I need help from the production side to select the proper writers, cast, etc. and to help me generally in the supervision of these pictures." Although Griffith eventually disagreed with Roach over the production and parted, Roach later insisted that some of the scenes in the completed film were directed by Griffith. This would make the film the final production in which Griffith was actively involved. However, cast members recall Griffith directing only the
screen testA screen test is a method of determining the suitability of an actor or actress for performing on film and/or in a particular role. The performer is generally given a scene, or selected lines and actions, and instructed to perform in front of a camera to see if they are suitable...
s and costume tests. When Roach advertised the film in late 1939 with Griffith listed as producer, Griffith asked that his name be removed.
Mostly forgotten by movie goers, he was still held in awe by many in the film industry. In the mid 30's, he was given a special Oscar by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. In 1946, he visited the film location of David O. Selznick's epic western "Duel in the Sun", where some of his veteran actors, Lillian Gish, Lionel Barrymore, and Harry Carey were cast members. The actors found their old mentor's presence so disconcerting, he was asked to cut short his visit in order that filming could resume.
Death
Griffith died of a cerebral hemorrhage in 1948 on the way to a Hollywood hospital, after being discovered unconscious in the lobby at the
Knickerbocker HotelThe Hollywood Knickerbocker Apartments, formerly the Knickerbocker Hotel, is a senior home 1714 Ivar Avenue in Los Angeles, California. Built in 1925 by E.M. Frasier in Spanish Colonial Revival style, the historic hotel catered to the region's nascent film industry, and is the site for some of...
in Los Angeles, where he had been living alone. There was a large public service in his honor at the Hollywood Masonic Temple, where few stars came to pay their last respects. He is buried at Mount Tabor Methodist Church Graveyard in
CenterfieldCenterfield is an unincorporated suburban community in Oldham County, Kentucky, United States. It is a small community that lies a few miles east of Crestwood on KY 22 and a few miles west of La Grange. Nearby schools are Centerfield Elementary and East Oldham Middle School, the two closest high...
, Kentucky. In 1950, The
Directors Guild of AmericaDirectors Guild of America is an entertainment labor union which represents the interests of film and television directors in the United States motion picture industry...
provided a stone and bronze monument for his gravesite.
Legacy
Motion picture legend Charles Chaplin called Griffith "The Teacher of us All". This sentiment was widely shared. Filmmakers as diverse as
John FordJohn Ford was an American film director. He was famous for both his westerns such as Stagecoach, The Searchers, and The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance, and adaptations of such classic 20th-century American novels as The Grapes of Wrath...
,
Alfred HitchcockSir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock, KBE was a British film director and producer. He pioneered many techniques in the suspense and psychological thriller genres. After a successful career in British cinema in both silent films and early talkies, Hitchcock moved to Hollywood...
and
Orson WellesGeorge Orson Welles , best known as Orson Welles, was an American film director, actor, theatre director, screenwriter, and producer, who worked extensively in film, theatre, television and radio...
have spoken of their respect for the director of
IntoleranceIntolerance is a 1916 American silent film directed by D. W. Griffith and is considered one of the great masterpieces of the Silent Era. The three-and-a-half hour epic intercuts four parallel storylines each separated by several centuries: A contemporary melodrama of crime and redemption; a...
. Orson Welles said "I have never really hated Hollywood except for its treatment of D. W. Griffith. No town, no industry, no profession, no art form owes so much to a single man."
Regardless of whether Griffith actually invented new techniques in film grammar, he seems to have been the first to understand how these techniques could be used to create an expressive language, something that would gain popular recognition with the release of
The Birth of a NationThe Birth of a Nation is a 1915 American silent film directed by D. W. Griffith and based on the novel and play The Clansman, both by Thomas Dixon, Jr. Griffith also co-wrote the screenplay , and co-produced the film . It was released on February 8, 1915...
(1915). In early shorts such as Biograph's
The Musketeers of Pig AlleyThe Musketeers of Pig Alley is a 1912 American short drama film credited as the first gangster film in history. It is directed by D. W. Griffith and written by Griffith and Anita Loos. It is also credited for its early use of follow focus, a fundamental tool in cinematography.The film was released...
(1912) which was the first "gangster film", we can see how Griffith's attention to camera placement and lighting heighten mood and tension. In making
Intolerance, the director opened up new possibilities for the medium, creating a form that seems to owe more to music than to traditional narrative. Griffith was honored on a 10-cent postage stamp by the United States issued on May 5, 1975.
In 1953, the
Directors Guild of AmericaDirectors Guild of America is an entertainment labor union which represents the interests of film and television directors in the United States motion picture industry...
instituted the D. W. Griffith Award, its highest honor. Its recipients included
Stanley KubrickStanley Kubrick was an American film director, writer, producer, and photographer who lived in England during most of the last four decades of his career...
,
David LeanSir David Lean CBE was an English film director, producer, screenwriter, and editor best remembered for big-screen epics such as The Bridge on the River Kwai , Lawrence of Arabia ,...
,
John HustonJohn Marcellus Huston was an American film director, screenwriter and actor. He wrote most of the 37 feature films he directed, many of which are today considered classics: The Maltese Falcon , The Treasure of the Sierra Madre , Key Largo , The Asphalt Jungle , The African Queen , Moulin Rouge...
,
Woody AllenWoody Allen is an American screenwriter, director, actor, comedian, jazz musician, author, and playwright. Allen's films draw heavily on literature, sexuality, philosophy, psychology, Jewish identity, and the history of cinema...
,
Akira Kurosawawas a Japanese film director, producer, screenwriter and editor. Regarded as one of the most important and influential filmmakers in the history of cinema, Kurosawa directed 30 filmsIn 1946, Kurosawa co-directed, with Hideo Sekigawa and Kajiro Yamamoto, the feature Those Who Make Tomorrow ;...
,
John FordJohn Ford was an American film director. He was famous for both his westerns such as Stagecoach, The Searchers, and The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance, and adaptations of such classic 20th-century American novels as The Grapes of Wrath...
,
Ingmar BergmanErnst Ingmar Bergman was a Swedish director, writer and producer for film, stage and television. Described by Woody Allen as "probably the greatest film artist, all things considered, since the invention of the motion picture camera", he is recognized as one of the most accomplished and...
,
Alfred HitchcockSir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock, KBE was a British film director and producer. He pioneered many techniques in the suspense and psychological thriller genres. After a successful career in British cinema in both silent films and early talkies, Hitchcock moved to Hollywood...
, and Griffith's friend
Cecil B. DeMilleCecil Blount DeMille was an American film director and Academy Award-winning film producer in both silent and sound films. He was renowned for the flamboyance and showmanship of his movies...
. However, on December 15, 1999, DGA President
Jack SheaJack Shea is an American film and television director. He was the president of the Directors Guild of America from 1997 to 2002.-External links:*...
and the DGA National Board announced that the award would be renamed the DGA Lifetime Achievement Award because Griffith's film
The Birth of a Nation "helped foster intolerable racial stereotypes."
Francis Ford CoppolaFrancis Ford Coppola is an American film director, producer and screenwriter. He is widely acclaimed as one of Hollywood's most innovative and influential film directors...
and
Sidney LumetSidney Lumet was an American director, producer and screenwriter with over 50 films to his credit. He was nominated for the Academy Award as Best Director for 12 Angry Men , Dog Day Afternoon , Network and The Verdict...
, previous recipients of the award, agreed with the guild's decision.
Griffith was a leading character in
The Biograph GirlThe Biograph Girl is a musical with a book by Warner Brown, lyrics by Brown and David Heneker, and music by Heneker. Its plot focuses on the silent film era and five pioneers of American cinema - actresses Mary Pickford and Lillian Gish, directors D.W...
, a 1980 stage musical about the silent film era. On December 10, 2008
Hollywood Heritage MuseumThe Hollywood Heritage Museum, also known as the "Hollywood Studio Museum," is located on Highland Ave. in Hollywood, California, USA.The museum is opposite the Hollywood Bowl and is housed in the restored Lasky-DeMille Barn, which was acquired in February 1983 by Hollywood Heritage, Inc., and...
hosted a screening of Griffith's earliest films, to commemorate the centennial since his start in film. On January 22, 2009 the Oldham History Center in
La GrangeAs of the census of 2000, there were 5,676 people, 2,216 households, and 1,502 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,514.8 people per square mile . There were 2,330 housing units at an average density of 621.8 per square mile...
, Kentucky opened a 15 seat theatre in Griffith's honor. The theatre features a library of Griffith films to choose from.
Film preservation
D.W. Griffith has five films preserved in the United States
National Film RegistryThe National Film Registry is the United States National Film Preservation Board's selection of films for preservation in the Library of Congress. The Board, established by the National Film Preservation Act of 1988, was reauthorized by acts of Congress in 1992, 1996, 2005, and again in October 2008...
as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". These films are
Lady Helen's EscapadeLady Helen's Escapade is a short movie produced in 1909, directed by D. W. Griffith. It is about the escapades of Lady Helen working as a domestic in a boarding house....
(1909),
A Corner in WheatA Corner in Wheat is a 1909 American short film which tells of a greedy tycoon who tries to corner the world market on wheat, destroying the lives of the people who can no longer afford to buy bread. It was directed by D. W. Griffith and adapted by Griffith and Frank E...
(1909),
The Birth of a NationThe Birth of a Nation is a 1915 American silent film directed by D. W. Griffith and based on the novel and play The Clansman, both by Thomas Dixon, Jr. Griffith also co-wrote the screenplay , and co-produced the film . It was released on February 8, 1915...
(1915),
Intolerance: Love's Struggle Throughout the AgesIntolerance is a 1916 American silent film directed by D. W. Griffith and is considered one of the great masterpieces of the Silent Era. The three-and-a-half hour epic intercuts four parallel storylines each separated by several centuries: A contemporary melodrama of crime and redemption; a...
(1916), and
Broken BlossomsBroken Blossoms or The Yellow Man and the Girl is a 1919 silent film directed by D.W. Griffith. It was distributed by United Artists and premiered on May 13, 1919...
(1919).
Selected filmography
- The Taming of the Shrew
The Taming of the Shrew is a 1908 silent film directed by D. W. Griffith. It was based on Shakespeare's play of the same name.- Cast :*Florence Lawrence ... Katharina*Arthur V. Johnson ... Petruchio*Linda Arvidson ... Bianca...
(1908)
- Money Mad (1908)
- Balked at the Altar
Balked at the Altar is a 1908 short comedy film directed by D. W. Griffith. A print of the film survives in the film archive of the Library of Congress...
(1908)
- Romance of a Jewess
Romance of a Jewess is a 1908 silent short drama film written and directed by D.W. Griffith.-Cast:* Florence Lawrence as Ruth Simonson* George Gebhardt as Simon Bimberg* Gladys Egan as The Daughter* John R. Cumpson as Customer* Guy Hedlund* Arthur V...
(1908) with Florence LawrenceFlorence Lawrence was a Canadian inventor and silent film actress. She is often referred to as "The First Movie Star." When she was popular, she was known as "The Biograph Girl," "The Imp Girl," and "The Girl of a Thousand Faces." Lawrence appeared in more than 270 films for various motion...
- At the Altar
At the Altar is a 1909 silent drama film directed by D. W. Griffith. The film was shot in Fort Lee, New Jersey where early film studios in America's first motion picture industry were based at the beginning of the 20th century...
(1909)
- Those Awful Hats
Those Awful Hats is a 1909 short comedy film directed by D.W. Griffith. It takes place in a small, crowded movie theatre, where the patrons are perpetually distracted by people - primarily women - wearing large, ostentatious hats that obstruct everyone else's views of the screen...
(1909)
- Lady Helen's Escapade
Lady Helen's Escapade is a short movie produced in 1909, directed by D. W. Griffith. It is about the escapades of Lady Helen working as a domestic in a boarding house....
(1909)
- Resurrection
Resurrection is a 1909 silent short film made by Biograph Studios. It is based on the Leo Tolstoy novel Resurrection. Adapted for the screen by Frank E. Woods, it was directed by D. W. Griffith and starred several pioneering legends of American cinema such as Arthur V. Johnson, Florence Lawrence,...
(1909)
- The Country Doctor
The Country Doctor is a 1909 drama film directed by D. W. Griffith. Prints of the film exist in the film archives of the Museum of Modern Art and the Library of Congress.-Cast:* Kate Bruce as Poor Mother...
(1909) with Florence Lawrence and Mary PickfordMary Pickford was a Canadian-born motion picture actress, co-founder of the film studio United Artists and one of the original 36 founders of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences...
- A Corner in Wheat
A Corner in Wheat is a 1909 American short film which tells of a greedy tycoon who tries to corner the world market on wheat, destroying the lives of the people who can no longer afford to buy bread. It was directed by D. W. Griffith and adapted by Griffith and Frank E...
(1909)
- The House with Closed Shutters
The House with Closed Shutters is a 1910 drama film directed by D.W. Griffith. Prints of the film exist in the film archives of the Museum of Modern Art, George Eastman House and the Library of Congress. -Cast:* Henry B...
(1910)
- In Old California (1910) with Henry B. Walthall
Henry Brazeale Walthall was an American film actor.-Career:Walthall began his career as a stage actor, appearing on Broadway in a supporting role in William Vaughn Moody's The Great Divide in 1906–1908. His career in movies began in 1908, in the film Rescued from an Eagle's Nest, which also...
- In the Border States
In the Border States is a 1910 drama film directed by D. W. Griffith. Prints of the film survive in the film archives of the Museum of Modern Art and the Library of Congress.-Cast:* Charles West - Young Father* Charles Arling...
(1910) with Henry B. Walthall
- The Lonedale Operator
The Lonedale Operator is a 1911 short drama film directed by D. W. Griffith. A print of the film survives in the film archive of the Museum of Modern Art in New York City....
(1911) with Blanche Sweet
- The Smile of a Child
The Smile of a Child is a 1911 short silent drama film directed by D. W. Griffith and starring Blanche Sweet.-Cast:* Blanche Sweet - The Peasant Woman* Edwin August* W. Chrystie Miller* Baden Powell - The Child...
(1911) with Blanche Sweet
- Fighting Blood
Fighting Blood is a 1911 short silent Western film directed by D. W. Griffith, starring George Nichols and featuring Lionel Barrymore and Blanche Sweet...
(1911) with Blanche Sweet and Lionel BarrymoreLionel Barrymore was an American actor of stage, screen and radio. He won an Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance in A Free Soul...
- Out from the Shadow
Out from the Shadow is a 1911 short silent drama film directed by D. W. Griffith and starring Blanche Sweet.-Cast:* Blanche Sweet - Mrs. Vane* Edwin August - Mr. Vane* Jeanie Macpherson - The Young Widow* Donald Crisp - At Dance* John T...
(1911) with Blanche Sweet
- The Making of a Man
The Making of a Man is a 1911 short silent drama film directed by D. W. Griffith and starring Blanche Sweet.-Cast:* Dell Henderson - Leading Man* Blanche Sweet - Young Woman* Edwin August - Young Woman's Family...
(1911) with Blanche Sweet
- Her Awakening
Her Awakening is a 1911 short predating feature-length films starring comedienne Mabel Normand and directed by D. W. Griffith. Normand portrays a vivaciously effervescent young woman ashamed to introduce her poorly dressed mother to her elegant suitor...
(1911) with Mabel NormandMabel Normand was an American silent film comedienne and actress. She was a popular star of Mack Sennett's Keystone Studios and is noted as one of the film industry's first female screenwriters, producers and directors...
- The Goddess of Sagebrush Gulch
The Goddess of Sagebrush Gulch is a 1912 short silent Western film directed by D. W. Griffith and starring Blanche Sweet.-Cast:* Blanche Sweet - The Goddess* Charles West - Blue Grass Pete* Dorothy Bernard - The Goddess's Sister...
(1912) with Blanche Sweet
- Friends
Friends is a 1912 film written and directed by D. W. Griffith and starring Mary Pickford, Henry B. Walthall, Lionel Barrymore, and Harry Carey...
(1912) with Mary Pickford, Henry B. Walthall, Lionel Barrymore and Harry Carey
- An Unseen Enemy
An Unseen Enemy is a 1912 Biograph short silent film directed by D. W. Griffith, and was the first movie to be made starring the actresses Lillian Gish and Dorothy Gish. A critic of the time stated that "the Gish sisters gave charming performances in this one-reel film"...
(1912) with Lilian Gish
- The New York Hat
The New York Hat is a short silent film directed by D. W. Griffith from a screenplay by Anita Loos, and starring Mary Pickford, Lionel Barrymore, and Lillian Gish.-Production:...
(1912) with Mary Pickford, Lionel Barrymore, Mae MarshMae Marsh was an American film actress with a career spanning over 50 years.-Early life:...
and Lillian GishLillian Diana Gish was an American stage, screen and television actress whose film acting career spanned 75 years, from 1912 to 1987....
- The Musketeers of Pig Alley
The Musketeers of Pig Alley is a 1912 American short drama film credited as the first gangster film in history. It is directed by D. W. Griffith and written by Griffith and Anita Loos. It is also credited for its early use of follow focus, a fundamental tool in cinematography.The film was released...
(1912) with Lillian Gish
- Drink's Lure (1913)
- Oil and Water
Oil and Water is a 1913 film directed by D. W. Griffith and starring Blanche Sweet. The supporting cast includes Henry B. Walthall, Lionel Barrymore, and Harry Carey. A stage dancer and a serious-type homebody discover, after marriage, that their individual styles don't mesh...
(1913) with Blanche Sweet, Henry B. Walthall, Lionel Barrymore and Harry Carey
- Judith of Bethulia
Judith of Bethulia is a film starring Blanche Sweet and Henry B. Walthall. The film was produced and directed by D. W. Griffith and was the first feature-length film made by pioneering film company Biograph, although the second that Biograph released....
(1914) with Blanche Sweet, Henry B. Walthall, Mae Marsh, Lillian Gish and Dorothy GishDorothy Elizabeth Gish was an American actress, and the younger sister of actress Lillian Gish.-Early life:...
- Strongheart (1914) with Blanche Sweet, Lionel Barrymore and Alan Hale
Alan Hale, Sr. was an American movie actor and director, most widely remembered for his many supporting character roles, in particular as frequent sidekick of Errol Flynn. His wife of over thirty years was Gretchen Hartman , a child actress and silent film player and mother of their three children...
- The Avenging Conscience
The Avenging Conscience: or "Thou Shalt Not Kill" is a drama film directed by D. W. Griffith.The film is based on the Edgar Allan Poe short stories "The Tell-Tale Heart" and "Annabel Lee".-Plot:...
(1914) with Blanche Sweet and Henry B. Walthall
- The Birth of a Nation
The Birth of a Nation is a 1915 American silent film directed by D. W. Griffith and based on the novel and play The Clansman, both by Thomas Dixon, Jr. Griffith also co-wrote the screenplay , and co-produced the film . It was released on February 8, 1915...
(1915) with Lillian Gish, Henry B. Walthall, Mae Marsh, Miriam CooperMiriam Cooper was a silent film actress who is best known for her work in early film including Birth of a Nation and Intolerance for D.W. Griffith and The Honor System and Evangeline for her husband Raoul Walsh...
and Raoul WalshRaoul Walsh was an American film director, actor, founding member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences and the brother of silent screen actor George Walsh...
- Intolerance
Intolerance is a 1916 American silent film directed by D. W. Griffith and is considered one of the great masterpieces of the Silent Era. The three-and-a-half hour epic intercuts four parallel storylines each separated by several centuries: A contemporary melodrama of crime and redemption; a...
(1916)
- Hearts of the World
Hearts of the World is a silent film directed by D.W. Griffith, a wartime propaganda classic that was filmed on location in Britain and near the Western Front, made at the request of the British Government to change the neutral mindset of the American public.-Plot:Two families live next to one...
(1918) with Lillian and Dorothy Gish
- The Great Love (1918) with Lillian Gish
- True Heart Susie
True Heart Susie is an American drama film directed by D. W. Griffith and starring Lillian Gish. A print of the film survives in the film archive of the British Film Institute...
(1919) with Lillian GishLillian Diana Gish was an American stage, screen and television actress whose film acting career spanned 75 years, from 1912 to 1987....
and Robert HarronRobert "Bobby" Harron was an American motion picture actor of the early silent film era. Although he acted in scores of films, he is possibly best remembered for his roles in the D.W. Griffith directed films Intolerance and The Birth of a Nation...
- Broken Blossoms
Broken Blossoms or The Yellow Man and the Girl is a 1919 silent film directed by D.W. Griffith. It was distributed by United Artists and premiered on May 13, 1919...
(1919) with Lillian Gish
- A Romance of Happy Valley
A Romance of Happy Valley is a 1919 drama film directed by D. W. Griffith and starring Lillian Gish. Believed lost for almost 60 years, a print was discovered in 1965 in USSR.-Cast:* Lillian Gish - Jennie Timberlake* Robert Harron - John L. Logan Jr...
(1919)
- Way Down East
Way Down East is a silent film directed by D. W. Griffith and starring Lillian Gish. It is the best known of four film adaptations of the melodramatic 19th century play Way Down East by Lottie Blair Parker...
(1920) with Lillian Gish
- Orphans of the Storm
Orphans of the Storm is a drama film by D. W. Griffith set in late 18th century France, before and during the French Revolution.This was the last Griffith film to feature Lillian and Dorothy Gish, and is often considered Griffith's last major commercial success, after boxoffice hits such as Birth...
(1921) with Lillian Gish and Dorothy Gish
- Dream Street
Dream Street is a silent movie directed by D. W. Griffith, and starring Carol Dempster, Charles Emmett Mack, and Ralph Graves in a story about a love triangle set in London, and based on two short stories by Thomas Burke, "Gina of Chinatown" and "Song of the Lamp"...
(1921) with experimental sound sequences in PhotokinemaPhoto-Kinema was a sound-on-disc system for motion pictures invented by Orlando Kellum.-1921 introduction:The system was first used for a small number of short films, mostly made in 1921...
sound-on-disc process
- One Exciting Night
One Exciting Night is a 1922 American Gothic silent Mystery film directed by D. W. Griffith.The plot revolves around the murder of a bootlegger and the attempts of the cast to uncover the true murderer...
(1922) with Henry HullHenry Watterson Hull was an American character actor with a unique voice, most noted for playing the lead in Universal Pictures's Werewolf of London .-Life and career:Hull was born in Louisville, Kentucky...
- Mammy's Boy (1923) with Al Jolson
Al Jolson was an American singer, comedian and actor. In his heyday, he was dubbed "The World's Greatest Entertainer"....
- The White Rose
The White Rose is a silent D. W. Griffith production from 1923. The film was written, produced and directed by Griffith, and starring Mae Marsh, Ivor Novello, Carol Dempster, and Neil Hamilton....
(1923) with Carol DempsterCarol Dempster was an American film actress of the silent film era.-Biography:Born in Duluth, Minnesota, Dempster got her start in films as a protégé of legendary film director D.W. Griffith alongside other Griffith actresses of the mid-1910s Lillian and Dorothy Gish and Mae Marsh...
and Mae MarshMae Marsh was an American film actress with a career spanning over 50 years.-Early life:...
- America (1924)
- Isn't Life Wonderful
Isn't Life Wonderful? is a film, directed by D. W. Griffith for his company D. W. Griffith Productions, and distributed by United Artists. It was based on the novel by Geoffrey Moss and it went under the alternative title Dawn. The title of the film was spoofed in the Charlie Chase comedy Isn't...
(1924) with Carol DempsterCarol Dempster was an American film actress of the silent film era.-Biography:Born in Duluth, Minnesota, Dempster got her start in films as a protégé of legendary film director D.W. Griffith alongside other Griffith actresses of the mid-1910s Lillian and Dorothy Gish and Mae Marsh...
and Neil Hamilton
- Sally of the Sawdust
Sally of the Sawdust is an American silent comedy film, directed by D. W. Griffith, starring W. C. Fields, and based on the 1923 stage musical Poppy.-Plot:...
(1925) with W.C. Fields and Carol DempsterCarol Dempster was an American film actress of the silent film era.-Biography:Born in Duluth, Minnesota, Dempster got her start in films as a protégé of legendary film director D.W. Griffith alongside other Griffith actresses of the mid-1910s Lillian and Dorothy Gish and Mae Marsh...
- The Sorrows of Satan
The Sorrows of Satan is a silent film by D. W. Griffith based on the novel The Sorrows of Satan by Marie Corelli. At this point in his career Griffith had given up his independent filmmaker status by joining Paramount Pictures....
(1926)
- Drums of Love
Drums of Love is a silent romance film directed by D. W. Griffith.-Plot:After finding out her father and his estate is in danger, Princess Emanuella saves his life by marrying Duke Cathos de Alvia, a grotesque hunchback. She actually is in love with Leonardo, his attractive younger brother...
(1928) with Mary PhilbinMary Philbin was a notable film actress of the silent film era. Philbin is probably best remembered for playing the roles of Christine Daaé in the 1925 film The Phantom of the Opera opposite screen legend Lon Chaney and Dea in The Man Who Laughs...
and Lionel BarrymoreLionel Barrymore was an American actor of stage, screen and radio. He won an Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance in A Free Soul...
- The Battle of the Sexes
The Battle of the Sexes is a film directed by D. W. Griffith, starring Jean Hersholt, Phyllis Haver, Belle Bennett, Don Alvarado and Sally O'Neil, and released by United Artists. The film was a remake by Griffith of an earlier film he directed in 1914, which starred Lillian Gish...
(1928)
- Lady of the Pavements
Lady of the Pavements is a silent film directed by D. W. Griffith and starring Lupe Vélez, William Boyd, and Jetta Goudal. Griffith reshot the film to include a couple of musical numbers, making it a part-talkie.-Preservation:The Vitaphone sound-on-disc system was employed for sound sequences...
(1929) with Lupe VélezLupe Vélez was a Mexican film actress. Vélez began her career in Mexico as a dancer, before moving to the U.S. where she worked in vaudeville. She was seen by Fanny Brice who promoted her, and Vélez soon entered films, making her first appearance in 1924. By the end of the decade she had...
and William BoydWilliam Lawrence Boyd was an American film actor best known for portraying Hopalong Cassidy.-Biography:...
- D.W. Griffith's 'Abraham Lincoln' (1930) with Walter Huston
Walter Thomas Huston was a Canadian-born American actor. He was the father of actor and director John Huston and the grandfather of actress Anjelica Huston and actor Danny Huston.-Life and career:...
- The Struggle
The Struggle is a sound feature film directed by D. W. Griffith, and was his only other full-sound film besides Abraham Lincoln . After several films directed by Griffith failed at the box office, this was Griffith's last film...
(1931)
Further reading
- Lillian Gish, The Movies, Mr. Griffith and Me (Englewood, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1969)
- Karl Brown, Adventures with D. W. Griffith (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1973)
- Richard Schickel, D. W. Griffith: An American Life (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984)
- Robert M. Henderson, D. W. Griffith: His Life and Work (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972)
- William M. Drew, D. W. Griffith's "Intolerance:" Its Genesis and Its Vision (Jefferson, New Jersey: McFarland & Company, 1986)
- Kevin Brownlow, The Parade's Gone By (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1968)
- Seymour Stern, An Index to the Creative Work of D. W. Griffith, (London: The British Film Institute, 1944–47)
- David Robinson, Hollywood in the Twenties (New York: A. S. Barnes & Co, Inc., 1968)
- Edward Wagenknecht and Anthony Slide, The Films of D. W. Griffith (New York: Crown, 1975)
- William K. Everson, American Silent Film (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978)
- Matthew Smith, "American Valkyries: Richard Wagner
Wilhelm Richard Wagner was a German composer, conductor, theatre director, philosopher, music theorist, poet, essayist and writer primarily known for his operas...
, D. W. Griffith, and the Birth of Classical Cinema", in Modernism/modernityModernism/modernity is a peer-reviewed academic journal founded in 1994 by Lawrence Rainey and Robert van Hallberg. Since 2001 it has been the official publication of the Modernist Studies Association and each September issue presents papers from their annual conference.The journal is...
15:2 (http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/modernism-modernity/toc/mod15.2.html April 2008), 221–42.
- Iris Barry and Eileen Bowser, D. W. Griffith: American Film Master (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1965)
External links